138-619: The bogong moth ( Agrotis infusa ) is a temperate species of night-flying moth , notable for its biannual long-distance seasonal migrations towards and from the Australian Alps , similar to the diurnal monarch butterfly . During the autumn and winter it is found in southern Queensland , western New South Wales , western Victoria , and also in South and Western Australia . Adult bogong moths breed and larvae hatch during this period, consuming winter pasture plants during their growth. During
276-423: A mutation–selection balance . It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but evolutionarily neutral and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the fitness landscape will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles
414-400: A "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged Drosophila born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies . In the 1970s, Robert R. Sokal , Theodore J. Crovello and Peter Sneath proposed
552-424: A 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan 's early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher Philip Kitcher called this
690-531: A February 2021 assessment. Species A species ( pl. : species) is a population of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring , typically by sexual reproduction . It is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity . Other ways of defining species include their karyotype , DNA sequence, morphology , behaviour, or ecological niche . In addition, paleontologists use
828-428: A connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing
966-432: A different species from its ancestors. Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral quasispecies is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly mutagenic environment, and hence governed by
1104-508: A genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present. DNA barcoding has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase . A database, Barcode of Life Data System , contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider
1242-465: A lineage should be divided into multiple chronospecies , or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as cladistic species. Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being . In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. Charles Darwin 's 1859 book On
1380-492: A misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently. Genetic introgression mediated by endosymbionts and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species. A phylogenetic or cladistic species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides
1518-449: A particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as
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#17328584779821656-400: A perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and conservationists for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but evolutionary processes cause species to change. This obliges taxonomists to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that
1794-400: A short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of genera and species are usually printed in italics . However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised. When a species' identity is not clear,
1932-463: A small grinding stone , estimated to be about 2,000 years old. This is the first confirmed evidence of insect food remains discovered on a stone artefact in the whole world. The Gunaikurnai people were one of the peoples who used to travel to the mountains to obtain the high-fat, energy-rich food, and stories of these travels had been passed down in their oral history . The excavation was done by researchers from Monash University in collaboration with
2070-876: A southerly direction during the summer and aestivate (remain dormant), until conditions are favourable again. During the spring migration , adult bogong moths can be found in their ideal aestivation sites, which generally consist of cool, dark caves and crevices but can include spaces underneath tors and even fallen tree trunks. Stable temperatures and humidity make these locations ideal for bogong moth aestivation. Crevices regulate their environment through wind flow, and caves generally have more regular temperatures and greater humidity. This reduces water loss in bogong moths during their inactivity. While temporary sites can be used in lower elevations, these sites undergo massive population fluctuations and movements throughout their use. Permanent aestivation sites are generally found in higher altitudes of 1500 metres (4920 ft) or above, with
2208-404: A specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after. With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: The naming of
2346-523: A species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in
2484-400: A species as determined by a taxonomist. A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as
2622-488: A species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , including some crustaceans and echinoderms . The evolutionary biologist James Mallet concludes that there
2760-685: A species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most multi-celled organisms , but breaks down in several situations: Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity , multiple life-cycle stages). In addition, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define
2898-483: A specimen with white hind wings under this name, alongside another specimen of Agrotis spina with blackish-brown hind wings. Australian amateur entomologist Alfred Jefferis Turner identified A. spina as a synonym of A. infusa in 1920. I. F. B. Common, an Australian entomologist, found specimens with both hind wing colours in 1954. Specimens with the white hind wings were only found during specific months in mercury vapour light traps near Canberra , and he attributed
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#17328584779823036-519: A taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the PhyloCode , and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited. The nomenclatural codes that guide the naming of species, including
3174-506: A traditional biological species. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy. Most modern textbooks make use of Ernst Mayr 's 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines
3312-447: A variation on the morphological species concept, a phenetic species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar phenotype to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits. A mate-recognition species
3450-515: A variety of reasons. Viruses are a special case, driven by a balance of mutation and selection , and can be treated as quasispecies . Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics . Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts,
3588-520: A water source for important reservoirs and water supply projects such as the Upper Nepean Scheme , Snowy Mountains Scheme and Warragamba Dam . The Bradfield Scheme has been mooted as a way to transport water from the Wet Tropics of Queensland in the coastal northeast of Far North Queensland via a series of Dams & Tunnels , southwest to inland dryer regions, including a tunnel through
3726-559: A wildlife ecologist at Deakin University . Bogong moths were historically used as a food source by Aboriginal peoples located in South-eastern Australia. Groups would travel to the area towards the summits of mountains to harvest moths, where they also met with other Aboriginal peoples, fostering inter-tribal relations as people gathered and feasted during these harvests. They would go into the caves and scrape aestivating moths off
3864-438: Is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to Willi Hennig 's species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that
4002-475: Is 0.326 grams. Bogong moth eggs are dome–shaped in appearance and are vertically ridged. They are 0.7 mm (0.03 in) in diameter and 0.4 mm (0.02 in) in height. Caterpillars initially start out with a pale colouration, but as they grow and consume food they become green with pale and dark stripes and spots. Larvae achieve a maximum length of 50 mm (2.0 in). Bogong moth populations are primarily located across southern Australia, west of
4140-400: Is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if
4278-578: Is a minor and irregular pest of crop plants in Australia. This makes it difficult to predict their pattern and control. Typically, control of this species is not cost-effective. However, if there are heavy damaging outbreaks of the bogong moth, insecticide is applied to the crops that are affected by it. Millions of bogong moths have been blown off course from their spring migration into major cities like Canberra, Melbourne , and Sydney due to strong winds, with notable instances of Bogong Moth invasions including
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4416-458: Is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters. A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This
4554-414: Is called speciation . Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book The Origin of Species . Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation , a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation
4692-412: Is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature , also sometimes in zoological nomenclature ). For example, Boa constrictor is one of the species of the genus Boa , with constrictor being the species' epithet. While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example,
4830-403: Is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see cryptic species ), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a validly published name (in botany) or an available name (in zoology) when
4968-671: Is further weakened by the existence of microspecies , groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming species aggregates . For example, the dandelion Taraxacum officinale and the blackberry Rubus fruticosus are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by hybridisation , apomixis and polyploidy , making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as Heliconius butterflies, vertebrates such as Hypsiboas treefrogs, and fungi such as
5106-726: Is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) agamospecies for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) ecospecies based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species,
5244-403: Is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods. The botanist Brent Mishler argued that the species concept
5382-401: Is not necessary. Some populations of bogong moths in areas such as Tasmania and in coastal populations of New South Wales do not migrate, and reach sexual maturity at a faster rate than migratory populations. During the spring migration, bogong moths gregariously aggregate with densities reaching 17,000 moths per square metre (10.8 square feet) within caves, crevices, and other areas hidden from
5520-468: Is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in cichlid teleosts of the East African Great Lakes . Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with
5658-729: Is only one major road crossing the highlands from north to south, the Great Alpine Road . Parts of the highlands consisting of relatively flat and, by Australian standards, well-watered land were developed for agricultural and pastoral uses. Such areas include the Atherton Tableland and Darling Downs in Queensland, and the Northern Tablelands , Southern Highlands and Southern Tablelands in New South Wales . Other parts of
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5796-586: Is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing karyotypes (sets of chromosomes ) and allozymes ( enzyme variants). An evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation. In palaeontology , with only comparative anatomy (morphology) and histology from fossils as evidence,
5934-425: Is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains , making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species. Great Dividing Range The Great Dividing Range , also known as
6072-594: Is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a chronospecies ), without increasing the number of resultant species. Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through hybridisation , antigenic shift , or reassortment ,
6210-555: The 2000 Olympics in Sydney. The large amount of light and noise present can also attract moths towards cities. Parliament House in Canberra, present in the middle of the Bogong Moth flight path during migrations, was notably susceptible to moths. Light pollution from the building traps them during their flight and encourages the moth to find shelter within crevices, shadows, and sometimes even
6348-658: The Australian Alps . The central core of the Great Dividing Range is dotted with hundreds of peaks and is surrounded by many smaller mountain ranges or spurs, canyons , valleys and plains of regional significance. Some of the major plains include the High Plains of South-Eastern Australia, the Southern Highlands, the Central Highlands and Bogong High Plains of Victoria. Other tablelands considered part of
6486-687: The Bass Strait . Rivers west of the Dividing Range drain in various westerly directions according to latitudes: the Murray–Darling basin in southeastern Australia ( Darling Downs /eastern South West Queensland , West/Central New South Wales , Northern Victoria and the Murraylands / Riverland region of southeastern South Australia ) drain southwestwards into the Great Australian Bight via
6624-622: The Calder Highway , the Western Highway , and the Murray Valley Highway traverse parts of the range. Much of the range lies within a succession of national parks and other reserves . Most of the national parks are listed below, and there are almost double that amount of state forests. In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Great Dividing Range was announced as one of
6762-587: The East Australian Cordillera or the Eastern Highlands , is a cordillera system in eastern Australia consisting of an expansive collection of mountain ranges , plateaus and rolling hills . It runs roughly parallel to the east coast of Australia and forms the fifth-longest land-based mountain chain in the world , and the longest entirely within a single country. It is mainland Australia 's most substantial topographic feature and serves as
6900-501: The Great Dividing Range . The regions contain populations of nonmigratory and migratory moths of this species, distinguished by their differing seasonal presences in each region. The adult bogong moth lays eggs across New South Wales, southern Queensland , and northern parts of Victoria, where larvae hatch and grow until adulthood. During the spring season and subsequent summer aestivation, bogong moths migrate south or east towards
7038-475: The Gulf of Carpentaria . The sharp rise between the coastal lowlands and the eastern uplands has affected Australia's climate , mainly due to orographic precipitation , and these areas of highest relief have revealed an impressive gorge country. Areas to the east of the mountain range in southern NSW usually experience a Föhn effect , which is a dry wind originating from the Great Dividing Range that abruptly raises
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#17328584779827176-523: The ICZN for animals and the ICN for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with sensu stricto ("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as
7314-619: The Latrobe Valley and Wilsons Promontory ). Whereas on the downwind (eastern) slopes, Cooma , Omeo , Goulburn , Bowral , Bombala , Nimmitabel , and Canberra , are warmer and drier relative to altitude. Moreover, Oberon , Shooters Hill and Sunny Corner are on the crest of the ranges and thus exposed from all directions, hence their evenly spread rainfall. The main ski resorts in New South Wales, such as Thredbo Village , Perisher and Charlotte Pass , lie transitionally between
7452-583: The Liverpool Range , Mount Royal Range and the Monaro District . Whilst some of the peaks of the highlands reach respectable heights of a little over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), the age of the range and its erosion mean that most of the mountains are not very steep, and virtually all peaks can be reached without mountaineering equipment. In some areas, such as the Snowy Mountains , Victorian Alps ,
7590-579: The Scenic Rim and the eastern escarpments of the New England region, the highlands form a significant barrier. The eastern escarpment is the site of many spectacular waterfalls which were formed by rivers plunging off the tablelands. In other areas the slopes are gentle and in places the range is barely perceptible. Well known passes on the range include Coxs Gap , Cunninghams Gap , Dead Horse Gap , Nowlands Gap , and Spicers Gap . Major cities located on
7728-559: The Shoalhaven River . Those that flow south, primarily through Victoria, include the Snowy , Cann , Tambo , Mitchell , Latrobe , Thomson , Yarra , Werribee , Hopkins and Glenelg rivers. At some high hill passes the range provides cool sites appropriate for vineyards . The engineers of early rail passages across the Great Dividing Range needed to find low sections of the range to cross, as well as suitable, "low" gradient paths up
7866-423: The Snowy Mountains portion of southern Great Dividing Range. The Dividing Range does not consist of a single continuous mountain chain , but is rather a combined complex ( cordillera ) of mountain ranges , plateaus , hilly upland areas and escarpments with an ancient and complex geological history . The physiographic division name for the landmass is called the East Australian Cordillera . In some places
8004-556: The Wimmera plains as rolling hills west of the Grampians region . The width of the Range varies from about 160 km (100 mi) to over 300 km (190 mi). The Greater Blue Mountains Area , Gondwana Rainforests and Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Areas are located in the Range. The highest place in Australia, the 2,228 m (7,310 ft) Mount Kosciuszko , resides in
8142-433: The autumn and winter seasons. The heavy presence of larvae in these pastures can lead to significant crop damage. During the spring and summer seasons, when grasses overtake these pastures, conditions are unfavourable for larval survival since larvae do not consume these plants. This leads to delayed breeding, as bogong moths are multivoltine and so can raise multiple generations. Instead, adult bogong moths migrate in
8280-408: The bioaccumulation of the pollutant in both the surrounding local environment and within predators, particularly in the endangered mountain pygmy possum . However, no conclusive evidence has directly linked agriculture as the source of arsenic in bogong moths. In 2001, a few months after rainfall had washed out debris consisting of dead moths from within the cave, the complete death of local grasses
8418-414: The drainage basins of river systems east (the coastal or rainward side) and west (the inland or leeward side) of it. The higher and more rugged parts of the "range" do not necessarily form part of the crest of the range, but may be branches and offshoots from it. The term "Great Dividing Range" may refer specifically to the watershed crest of the range, or to the entire upland complex including all of
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#17328584779828556-399: The fly agaric . Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap. A ring species is
8694-498: The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) of Latin America or the leopard ( Panthera pardus ) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code homonyms ); they are in two parts used together : the genus as in Puma , and the specific epithet as in concolor . A species is given a taxonomic name when a type specimen
8832-565: The spring , the moths migrate south or east and reside in mountains such as Mount Bogong , where they gregariously aestivate over the summer until their return towards breeding grounds again in the autumn. The moth's name, bogong , is derived from an Australian Aboriginal language ; the Dhudhuroa word bugung describes the brown colouration of the moth. It is an icon of Australian wildlife due to its historical role as an important food source and because Aboriginal peoples would come to where
8970-566: The traditional owners , represented by the Gunaikurnai Land and Waters Corporation (GLaWAC). Bogong moths have had a role in damaging crop plants since winter pastures serve as breeding grounds and larval food sources. Outbreaks of caterpillars have been recorded across New South Wales, with damage primarily done to heavy black soil flats. Medicago species, wheat, cabbages, cauliflowers, silver beet, peas, and potatoes have been recorded as being attacked by bogong moth larvae. The bogong moth
9108-406: The "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory. The species concept
9246-558: The Australian Alps, and can be found in the Australian Capital Territory and Bogong Mountains. However, bogong moths can also be found in locations as far as Tasmania and New Zealand due to strong winds that blow them off their path. Bogong moth eggs and larvae are primarily found in self-mulching soils (soil that mixes itself) and crop pastures, where both wild and agricultural larval food sources are abundant during
9384-687: The Blue Mountains were later named after each of these men. This was the start of the development of the agricultural districts of inland New South Wales . A road was built to Blaxland by convicts within six months. Easier routes to inland New South Wales were discovered towards Goulburn to the southwest, and westwards from Newcastle . Subsequent explorations were made across and around the ranges by Allan Cunningham , John Oxley , Hamilton Hume , Paul Edmund Strzelecki , Ludwig Leichhardt and Thomas Mitchell . These explorers were mainly concerned with finding and appropriating good agricultural land. By
9522-507: The Great Divide is only a slight rise in the surrounding topography. Knowing that local Aboriginal people had already established routes crossing the range and by making use of Aboriginal walking trails, a usable ridge-top route was finally discovered by Europeans directly westward from Sydney across the Blue Mountains to Bathurst by an expedition jointly led by Gregory Blaxland , William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth . Towns in
9660-536: The Great Dividing Range are the Atherton Tableland , Canberra wine region and the Southern Tablelands . The Dandenong Ranges , Barrington Tops , Bunya Mountains , Blue Mountains , Liverpool Range , McPherson Ranges and the Moonbi Range are some of the smaller spurs and ranges that make up the greater dividing range. Other notable ranges and tablelands which form part of the Great Dividing Range include
9798-728: The Great Dividing Range into the Flinders River then a tunnel into the Torrens Creek in the White Mountains National Park then flows south into Thompson River / Cooper Creek , part of the Eyre Basin . Many other variations have been proposed. The Great Dividing Range creates the drainage basins of the Australian south-east coast drainage division and the Australian north-east coast drainage division , whose water flows to
9936-737: The Murray–Darling Basin from Victoria include the Goulburn , Mitta Mitta , Kiewa , Ovens , King , Loddon and Campaspe rivers. Rivers that flow east into the Pacific Ocean include the Annan River , Barron River , Brisbane River , Burdekin River , Burnett River , Clarence River , Daintree River , Fitzroy River , Hastings River , Hawkesbury River , Hunter River , Karuah River , Macleay River , Mary River , Pascoe River , Richmond River and
10074-622: The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection . That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology . Genetic variability arises from mutations and recombination , while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to geographical isolation and genetic drift with varying selection pressures . Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer ; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and polyploidy ; and species may become extinct for
10212-405: The abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for species pluralis , Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in paleontology . Authors may also use "spp." as
10350-443: The aggregation, dropping excrement when unsettled before quickly returning to the aggregation and re-positioning themselves. While the moths mostly remain dormant during aestivation, there are some periods of activity within the aggregation which are correlated to changes in light intensity. During dawn and dusk, portions of the population become active, first crawling around and spreading out, and then flying out of their shelter into
10488-404: The air temperature in the lee of that mountain range and reduces atmospheric moisture. This dry wind, which elevates fire danger in the warm months, occurs because of the partial orographic obstruction of relatively damp low-level air and the subsiding of drier upper-level air in leeward of the mountains. The drier air is then heated more because of the adiabatic compression as it comes down
10626-570: The amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools . A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species. In microbiology , genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to
10764-403: The amount of light that reaches their light-sensitive eyes, later moths push themselves underneath the wings and abdomens of moths that arrived earlier and place their hind legs on top of the moths beneath them. This physical contact and aggregation allow the moths to retain body moisture. When the aestivating moths are disturbed, the moths within the area of disturbance briefly spread out and leave
10902-484: The bioaccumulation of this pollutant in animals. While no source has been determined, concerns have been raised over the possible role of agriculture in the bioaccumulation of arsenic due to its presence in historically and presently-used insecticides. This has led to the discontinued use of insecticides in controlling the bogong moth in urban areas, in favour of less intrusive methods. In the spring/summer aestivation seasons of 2017-8 and 2018-9, dramatic drops in numbers of
11040-474: The biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is Kevin de Queiroz 's "General Lineage Concept of Species". An ecological species
11178-505: The biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results. An evolutionary species, suggested by George Gaylord Simpson in 1951,
11316-428: The boundaries between closely related species become unclear with hybridisation , in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies , and in a ring species . Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually , the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be
11454-620: The coastal Lake Alexandrina ; the eastern half of the Lake Eyre basin in east central Australia (the Cooper Creek and Warburton River systems in Central /western South West Queensland and eastern Far North of South Australia) drain southwestwards into the endorheic Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre ; the numerous rivers of western Cape York Peninsula in northeastern Australia ( North / Far North Queensland ) drain westwards or northwestwards directly into
11592-509: The coastal and inland regions. Many descendants of these nations still exist today, and some remain the traditional owners and custodians of their lands. After British colonisation in 1788, the ranges were an obstacle to exploration and settlement by the British settlers. Although not high, parts of the highlands were very rugged. Crossing the Blue Mountains was particularly challenging due to
11730-433: The concept of a chronospecies can be applied. During anagenesis (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the phyletically extinct one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered
11868-416: The concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except viruses ) are given a two-part name , called a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part
12006-471: The definitive watershed for the river systems in eastern Australia, hence the name. The Great Dividing Range stretches more than 3,500 kilometres (2,175 mi) from Dauan Island in the Torres Strait off the northern tip of Cape York Peninsula , running the entire length of the eastern coastline through Queensland and New South Wales , then turning west across Victoria before finally fading into
12144-510: The development of parasites that depend on the regular arrival and departure of the moths from caves. The population within each aestivation site fluctuates throughout the summer due to moth mortality and the departure and arrival of moths either migrating further south for aestivation or north to return to breeding grounds. However, this differs from changes during migration periods, when the populations rapidly increase with arrival or decrease with departure. Bogong moths are nocturnal migrants, but
12282-452: The diapause, the bogong moth would normally complete sexual maturation within 50 days. However, this maturation is delayed due to the lack of larval food sources during the summer season. During the summer, hot temperatures occur and grasses, which are an unfavourable diet for bogong moth larvae, overtake pastures and make up the majority of the plants occupying the pastures. Bogong moths avoid this harsh environment by delaying development during
12420-451: The dramatic effect on animals which feed on the moths, which are an important source of protein for wildlife, including the threatened mountain pygmy possum as well as other insectivorous mammals and birds. "The vulnerability of the Australian Alps to climate change is the worst in the world because we've got these short little mountains so when it gets warmer, there is nowhere for these cold-adapted species to go", according to Euan Ritchie,
12558-458: The east coast and into the Pacific Ocean, Tasman Sea , and Bass Strait with the westerly Murray–Darling basin which flow inland, away from the coast into the interior plains. Some of the rivers which flow west of the ranges includes the Condamine River , Flinders River , Herbert River , Lachlan River , Macdonald River , Macintyre River and Namoi River . Rivers that flow north into
12696-435: The evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. For example, in a study done on fungi , studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising
12834-778: The exact mechanism for long-distance navigation is not clear. It is possible that they are oriented by light, as seen in the influence of light intensity on activity during aestivation. Additionally, bogong moths may use an internal magnetic compass to aid in navigation, as seen in the similar monarch butterfly. A study published in 2018 concluded that the Bogong moth uses a combination of the Earth's magnetic field and recognisable landmarks to calibrate their route. However, there are also nonmigratory populations; this generally occurs in areas with favourable conditions, where migration to avoid harsh conditions such as seasonal changes in larval food crop abundance
12972-427: The first three instars, taking until June to develop over the winter. However, the larvae go through fast growth during the spring, reaching the final instar in late August to September, soon before migration. They are active at night, when they feed on plants within breeding grounds. Larvae undergo pupation in soil chambers at a depth of 20–150 mm (0.8-7.9 in). Pupation can last between 3–11 weeks depending on
13110-540: The highlands are too rugged for agriculture and have been used for forestry. Many parts of the highlands which were not developed are now included in National Parks . All of mainland Australia 's alpine areas, including its highest mountain, Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 metres or 7,310 feet AHD ), are part of this range, called the Main Range . The highest areas in southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria are known as
13248-530: The hills and mountains between the east coast of Australia and the central plains and lowlands. At some places it can be up to 400 km (249 mi) wide. Notable ranges and other features which form part of the range complex have their own distinctive names. As a rule of thumb , rivers east/southeast of the Dividing Range drain directly eastward into the South Pacific and the Tasman Sea , or southward into
13386-479: The insides of the buildings during the light and heat of the day. Efforts have been made to try and drive the moths out by turning off lights, covering attractive corners and pathways indoors, and using insecticides . However, insecticide use has ceased in urban areas due to concerns over environmental consequences. In December 2021 the bogong moth was added to the IUCN Red List as an Endangered Species , based on
13524-480: The lack of rain producing insufficient vegetation to feed the caterpillars. Some caves still harboured thousands of moths, which suggested that the moths "came from different breeding grounds, where one location wasn't as badly affected by the drought as the other. I don't think they will disappear completely, but there's certainly a possibility that they could become locally extinct at their breeding grounds.", Warrant said. Other biologists and ecologists have pointed to
13662-445: The largest, most stable aggregations found on the summits of mountains such as Mt. Gingera. Adult bogong moths lay up to 2000 eggs in the soil or on plants near the soil after returning from aestivation sites in the autumn migration. Incubation times vary depending on temperature, with eggs hatching after a period of 4–7 days in laboratory conditions. The larvae of bogong moths undergo six instars . Caterpillars grow slowly throughout
13800-500: The larvae avoid grasses, which overtake pastures during the summer, making summer unfavourable due to lack of larval food sources. Adult bogong moths feed on the nectar of flowers such as Epacris , Grevillea and Eucalyptus while breeding or migrating, but will not actively feed during aestivation. Bogong moths undergo whole scale long-distance migration biannually, in which they can travel up to 965 km (600 miles). The spring migration begins in early September and occurs from
13938-641: The late 1830s, the most fertile rangelands adjacent to the mountain ranges had been explored, appropriated from the traditional inhabitants and some settled. These included the Gippsland and Riverina regions in the south, up to the Liverpool Plains and the Darling Downs in the north. Various road and railway routes were subsequently established through many parts of the ranges, although many areas remain remote to this day. For example, in eastern Victoria there
14076-881: The lee slopes, forming a rain shadow . In the cool season, the Great Dividing Range would shield much of the southeast (i.e. Sydney , Central Coast , Hunter Valley , Illawarra , the ACT , the Monaro and South Coast ) from south-westerly cold fronts that originate from the Southern Ocean , which bring chilling rains, sleet and snow to the upwind side of the ranges, such as on the western Central Tablelands , South West Slopes and Snowy Mountains regions – all which have relatively wetter winters. Upwind locations include Crookwell , Batlow , Tumut , Corryong , Bright , Beechworth , Eildon , Tolmie and those in West Gippsland (namely
14214-430: The leeward and windward side (the former town being more leeward and the latter more windward). Although they receive substantial precipitation from over the crest of the ranges, they lack the persistent cloud cover which characterises truly windward locations on the western face, which are; Cabramurra , Kiandra , Mount Buller , Falls Creek , Mount Hotham , Mount Buffalo and Mount Baw Baw . The Great Dividing Range
14352-452: The lowlands of Southern Australia south towards the Australian Alps for purposes of reaching aestivation sites. During the summer, the moths remain in their aestivation sites until autumn, when they migrate back towards the breeding grounds of the lowlands as early as February, but primarily in April. The bogong moth utilises particular aestivation sites repeatedly throughout migrations, as seen with
14490-465: The mammals that prey on the bogong moth, the endangered mountain pygmy-possum is the most reliant on bogong moths as a source of food. Two species of mermithid nematodes parasitise the bogong moth during its aestivation: Amphimermis bogongae and Hexamermis cavicola. The parasites are transmitted to bogong moths through water; the early instar larval nematodes reside in the debris of the cave floors of common aestivation sites, and crawl up to reach
14628-499: The migration is also dedicated to building fat reserves for aestivation rather than development, as bogong moths must consume more food during the autumn migration before maturation and mating. However, in areas with favourable conditions, bogong moths do not have to migrate during the summer. The bogong moth suffers from predation during both its migration and aestivation. During the spring and autumn migrations, several species of birds, mammals, and even fish have been recorded preying on
14766-593: The mistaken idea that the creeks should be followed rather than the ridges, and almost impenetrable, labyrinthine, sandstone mountains. The Blue Mountains actually lie to the east of the watershed that divides the Hawkesbury - Nepean system and the Murray-Darling system , the true Great Dividing Range. The watershed in this area lies to the west of Lithgow , passing near the locality of Mt Lambie and village of Capertee . There, as in some other places in New South Wales,
14904-426: The more commonly utilised larval host stage. The nematodes' life cycles demonstrate an adaptation to the migration of the bogong moths, as they are dependent on bogong moths returning to the same aestivation sites. Concerns have been raised over the potential role of agriculture in turning the bogong moth into a biovector of arsenic in the Australian Alps. Aggregations of bogong moths in aestivation sites has led to
15042-612: The moth, with its traditional name, Warkwoolowler , meaning the mountain where Aboriginal people collected the "boo.gong fly". The Taungurung name for the bogong moth is debera . In the Australian state of New South Wales , a series of mountains in the Kosciuszko National Park are named the Bogong Peaks. Adult bogong moths have an overall dark brown colouration, with a dark stripe interrupted by two light-coloured spots on
15180-477: The moth. Little raven , currawong and Australian pipit congregations form to feast on bogong moths as they travel from aestivation sites during migration. Aboriginal people also travelled to aestivation sites to feast on the dormant moths, and may have searched for these bird congregations to locate these sites. Bats also attack the moths during active flight periods during the dusk, and foxes , bush rats , and dusky antechinus have been recorded eating moths. Of
15318-490: The moths for aestivation , both primarily resulting from anthropogenic climate change . In December 2021 the bogong moth was added to the IUCN Red List as an Endangered Species . Bogong moths was first described by French lepidopterist Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1832, who described the moth as Noctua infusa from a type specimen from Australia . He described the moth as having blackish-brown hind wings. However, in 1903 British entomologist George Hampson classified
15456-521: The moths in the Alpine caves have been observed. Millions of the moths have usually lined the walls of these caves over summer, but for the 2017-8 and 2018-9 aestivation seasons there were none in some caves, according to Professor Eric Warrant of Lund University in Sweden . He says that the drop in numbers was probably caused by a lack of rainfall due to winter drought in their breeding areas and climate change ,
15594-531: The moths migrate again and return to their breeding grounds, laying eggs and dying. Bogong moth larvae subsist on winter pasture crops and wild crop weeds such as cape weeds within bogong moth breeding grounds, primarily depending on annual dicotyledons that grow during the winter. Attacks on a wide variety of cultivated crops have been seen, with plants such as Medicago species, wheat , cabbages , cauliflowers , silver beet , peas , and potatoes all recorded being consumed by bogong moth caterpillars. However,
15732-419: The moths spend the summer to feast on them and hold intertribal gatherings. In recent years, it has invaded major cities like Canberra , Melbourne , and Sydney due to strong winds during its spring migration. Starting around 1980 and accelerating rapidly after 2016, the Bogong Moth population has sharply declined as a result of increasingly severe droughts , along with increased temperatures in caves used by
15870-453: The moths through trickles of water coming down the walls. Bogong moths are infected upon their arrival within the caves once they drink the water. After a few months, the larval nematodes emerge from the moths, which causes the moth to die, and burrow into the cave floor, where they mature and lay eggs over the winter and wait for the next spring migration of the moths. The nematodes are unusual in that they parasitise adult bogong moths instead of
16008-913: The mountains on either side. Rail passages include: Many of Australia's highways such as the Alpine Way , Great Alpine Road , Snowy Mountains Highway , Hume Highway , Illawarra Highway , Northern Highway , Melba Highway , Maroondah Highway , Midland Highway , Pyrenees Highway , Sunraysia Highway , Monaro Highway , Olympic Highway , Newell Highway , Lachlan Valley Way , Barton Highway , Federal Highway , Kings Highway , Great Western Highway , Mitchell Highway , Mid-Western Highway , Castlereagh Highway , Mulligan Highway , Capricorn Highway , Cunningham Highway , Gore Highway , Flinders Highway , Gregory Highway , Peak Downs Highway , Dawson Highway , New England Highway , Golden Highway , Bruxner Highway , Gwydir Highway , Oxley Highway , Warrego Highway , Summerland Way , Waterfall Way , Thunderbolts Way ,
16146-418: The mountains. Bioaccumulation , the absorption and accumulation of substances by organisms, occurs with arsenic in bogong moths. While levels within each individual moth are small, the sheer quantity of moths in the area led to a concentration of the pollutant to damaging levels in the environment. The presence of arsenic has also been shown in the feces of mammals such as the mountain pygmy-possum, demonstrating
16284-478: The numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in Bovidae , by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach taxonomic inflation , diluting
16422-542: The open. While some water drinking has been observed, no evidence of copulation or active foraging has been found during these periods of activity. Facultative diapause , an optional period of delayed development in response to environmental conditions, accompanies the biannual migration of the bogong moths. While one generation of moths goes through the two migrations each year, multiple generations are possible in favourable conditions and higher temperatures, as growth across all life stages can occur faster. For example, without
16560-585: The paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence". Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using
16698-674: The person who named the species, while the antonym sensu lato ("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species. Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct. The evolutionary process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species
16836-487: The result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species. The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat, Felis catus , or the cat family, Felidae . Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean Puma concolor in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean
16974-573: The ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the herring gull – lesser black-backed gull complex around the North pole, the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the greenish warbler in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be
17112-508: The same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) method quantifies genetic distance between entire genomes , using regions of about 10,000 base pairs . With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for Pseudomonas avellanae in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that
17250-529: The same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given priority and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called synonymy . Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting . Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered
17388-502: The species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding. Unlike
17526-448: The summer so that their eggs do not hatch in a poorly-suited environment; instead, they migrate to cooler, more suitable areas and delay their development during aestivation until the winter season, when they return to the breeding grounds and winter pasture crops begin to grow again. During aestivation, the bogong moths remain dormant for several months, possibly delaying development due to the lower temperatures. The food they consume during
17664-436: The sunlight. The lack of light and relatively constant temperature and humidity makes these spots favourable during aestivation. The first moths that arrive occupy the deepest and darkest locations, using their fore tarsi to grip onto the rock faces, and aggregations form around these initial areas, with moths arriving later settling for less ideal areas with more sunlight, higher temperatures, and decreased humidity. To diminish
17802-481: The temperature and environment. Pupae are 20 mm (0.8 in) in length and have a shiny, brown appearance. Adults emerge from the soil chambers and shortly after begin migration. Adult bogong moths are active at night, and have different seasonal behaviors. During the spring, bogong moths feed and migrate south, where they aestivate during the summer. Adult bogong moths are not sexually mature yet, and do not actively seek food during this period of dormancy. In autumn,
17940-408: The terrain is relatively flat, consisting of very low hills. Typically the highlands range from 300 to 1,600 metres (980 to 5,250 ft) in height. The mountains and plateaus, which consist of limestones , sandstone , quartzite , schists and dolomite , have been created by faulting and folding processes. The crests of the Great Dividing Range is defined by the watershed boundary between
18078-465: The towns/cities located on or near the range include: The lower reaches are used for forestry, an activity that causes friction with conservationists. The range is also the source of virtually all of eastern Australia's water supply, both through runoff caught in dams, and throughout much of Queensland, through the Great Artesian Basin . Valleys along the chain of mountains have yielded
18216-432: The upland areas of the range include Canberra , Toowoomba and the outer suburbs of Sydney , Melbourne , Brisbane , Gold Coast and Cairns in north Queensland. Many towns and cities are located on the range, and also in lowland areas and foothills adjacent to the highlands. There is a strong natural history and cultural attachment to the Dividing Range region in towns and on many, sometimes remote, landholdings. Some of
18354-735: The walls into nets and dishes using sticks. Once gathered, the moths would be roasted to remove the scales and wings and then either eaten immediately or ground into a paste and made into "moth meat" cakes that would last and could be taken home. The moth was said to have a nice nutty flavour that was most similar to walnuts or almonds . The bogong moth is an icon of Australian wildlife due to this historical role as an important food source and as an inter-tribal gathering point in Southeastern Australia. An excavation of Cloggs Cave , near Buchan in Victoria , revealed microscopic remains of moth on
18492-514: The white hind wing specimens to a seasonal form. The moth's name, bogong , is derived from the Dhudhuroa word bugung , meaning brown moth. Its presence has contributed to the naming of numerous locations and landmarks. For example, a town, Bogong , in the Australian state of Victoria has been named after the moth. Mount Bogong , located south of the Bogong High Plains , is also named after
18630-537: The wild. It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species : I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. He went on to write: No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of
18768-399: The wings, distinguishing it from other moths. There are visual differences between the migratory and nonmigratory forms of the moth; migratory moths have brown hind wings while nonmigratory moths have paler hind wings. Bogong moths have a wingspan ranging between 40–50 mm (1.6-2.0 in), and a body length of around 25–35 mm (1-1.4 in). The average weight of an adult bogong moth
18906-566: Was formed during the Carboniferous period —over 300 million years ago—when Australia collided with what are now parts of South America and New Zealand. The range has experienced significant erosion since. (See Geology of Australia .) For tens of thousands of years prior to British colonisation the ranges were home to various Aboriginal Australian nations and clans. Evidence remains in some places of their traditional way of life including decorated caves, campsites and trails used to travel between
19044-446: Was seen outside of an aestivation site of the bogong moth. Investigation into the causes of the grass mortality showed that the concentration of arsenic in the surrounding areas was much higher than normal, and the source was determined to be the bogong moths. Since the bogong moths do not feed at their aestivation sites, they had absorbed arsenic from lowland feeding sites as larvae and subsequently transported it over long distances into
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