Misplaced Pages

#830169

102-532: Soon after the end of World War I, the US Army sought to explore highly armored and armed specialist ground-attack aircraft. This was a pet project of General Billy Mitchell . The Army Air Service Engineering Division issued requests for proposals to U.S. aircraft producers on 15 October 1919. There were no designs offered, so the Engineering Division ordered one of its engineers, Isaac M. Laddon , to attempt what

204-450: A recess appointment (as did Menoher) on July 16 to become Assistant Chief of Air Service with the rank of brigadier general. On July 30, 1920, he was transferred and promoted to the permanent rank of colonel, Air Service, with date of rank from July 1, placing him first in seniority among all Air Service branch officers. On March 4, 1921, Mitchell was appointed Assistant Chief of Air Service by new President Warren G. Harding with consent of

306-508: A "Command Chief") as principal senior NCO enlisted adviser. Colonels are also found leading at directorate and division levels on the Secretariat, Air Staff (United States) , MAJCOM , or Numbered Air Force staff. A Space Force colonel typically commands a delta . In the modern armed forces, the colonel's eagle is worn facing forward with head and beak pointing towards the wearer's front. Of all U.S. military commissioned officer rank, only

408-628: A bill to make Army aviation a branch separate from the Signal Corps and testified against the bill. As the only Signal Corps officer on the General Staff, he was chosen as temporary head of the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps , a predecessor of the present day United States Air Force , in May 1916, when its head was reprimanded and relieved of duty for malfeasance in the section. Mitchell administered

510-468: A continent in the past." He returned from Europe with a fervent belief that within a near future, possibly within ten years, air power would become the predominant force of war, and that it should be united entirely in an independent air force equal to the Army and Navy. He found encouragement in a number of bills before Congress proposing a Department of Aeronautics that included an air force separate from either

612-584: A first lieutenant in the 24th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment along with future general Arthur MacArthur (the father of General Douglas MacArthur ). The elder Mitchell served as a United States senator from 1883 to 1889. His paternal grandfather, Alexander Mitchell , a Scotsman , established what became the Milwaukee Road railroad and the Marine Bank of Wisconsin. Mitchell Park and

714-411: A lieutenant colonel as deputy commander, a major as executive officer , and a command sergeant major as a senior non-commissioned officer (NCO) advisor. An Air Force colonel typically commands a wing consisting of 1,000 to 4,000+ airmen with another colonel as the vice commander, four other colonels as group commanders , which are the major components of wings, and a Chief Master Sergeant (i.e.,

816-511: A minimum of three years as a lieutenant colonel before being promoted to colonel. With the signing of the National Defense Authorization Act of 2019 (NDAA 2019), military services now have the authorization to directly commission new officers up to the rank of colonel. The pay grade for colonel is O-6. When worn alone, the insignia of rank seen at right is worn centered on headgear and fatigue uniforms. When worn in pairs,

918-430: A minor but embarrassing protocol rift with Rear Admiral William A. Moffett at the start of the naval arms limitation conference , Patrick assigned him to an inspection tour of Europe with Alfred V. Verville and Lieutenant Clayton Bissell that lasted the duration of the conference over the winter of 1921–22. Mitchell was dispatched by President Harding to West Virginia to stop the warfare that had broken out between

1020-555: A number of aircraft innovations, including bomb-sights, sled-runner landing gear for winter operations, engine superchargers , and aerial torpedoes . He ordered the use of aircraft in fighting forest fires and border patrols. He also encouraged the staging of a transcontinental air race , a flight around the perimeter of the United States. He also encouraged Army pilots to break aviation records for speed, endurance and altitude. In short, he encouraged anything that would further develop

1122-518: A pay grade of "O-5". Officers in pay grade O-6 visiting or on temporary assignment to other installations are also accorded "Distinguished Visitor" (DV) status for lodging and other appropriate protocol honors. When flying on military aircraft as either crew or passenger, they are also accorded "Code" status as a "Code 7" in accordance with Department of Defense Flight Information Publication General Planning (DoD FLIP GP). Most Army colonels have attended or otherwise completed via seminar or correspondence

SECTION 10

#1732844498831

1224-567: A regiment. Since most U.S. regiments were state formations and were quickly raised, the colonels in command of the regiments were known by the title "Colonel of Volunteers", in contrast to Regular Army colonels who held permanent commissions. During the Civil War, the Confederate army maintained a unique insignia for colonel, which comprised three yellow stars worn on the collar of a uniform. Robert E. Lee wore this insignia due to his former rank in

1326-590: A relatively unimportant Army base had been directed by Secretary of War John Weeks . In response to the Navy's first helium -filled rigid airship Shenandoah crashing in a storm in September 1925, killing 14 of the crew, and the loss of three seaplanes on a flight from the West Coast to Hawaii, Mitchell issued a statement accusing senior leaders in the Army and Navy of incompetence and "almost treasonable administration of

1428-514: A threat to the United States and make the Air Service the nation's first line of defense instead of the Navy, he began to set out to prove that aircraft were capable of sinking ships to reinforce his position. His relations with superiors continued to sour as he began to criticize both the War and Navy departments for being insufficiently farsighted regarding air power. He advocated the development of

1530-519: A war college or a senior staff college equivalent to study joint warfare and war itself. It is possible to make Colonel without war college if the board file is as strong or stronger than a war college graduate. Most Army colonels receive postgraduate level senior joint professional military education (JPME) at the Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania prior to promotion. The 2009 graduating class

1632-683: Is named. Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is also named after Mitchell. Born in Nice , France, to John L. Mitchell , a wealthy Wisconsin senator , and his wife Harriet Danforth (Becker), Mitchell grew up on an estate in North Greenfield, Wisconsin , which is now the Milwaukee suburb of West Allis, Wisconsin . Mitchell's father served in the American Civil War as

1734-464: Is worn on the left side and the rank insignia is worn on the right hand side of the Marine, Navy, Coast Guard and NOAA garrison caps, the eagle is facing to the eagle's left with the olive branch clutched in the eagle's left hand talons, which is a mirror opposite to the wear of the single eagle for Army, Air Force, and Space Force officers. The U.S. rank of colonel is a direct successor to the same rank in

1836-502: The New-York Tribune revealed that the Navy's "tests" were done with dummy sand bombs and that the ship was actually sunk using high explosives placed on the ship, Congress introduced two resolutions urging new tests and backed the Navy into a corner. In the arrangements for the new tests, there was to be a news blackout until all data had been analyzed at which point only the official news report would be released; Mitchell felt that

1938-648: The Air Service that he would receive the post-war assignment of Director of Air Service. Instead, he returned to find that Maj. Gen. Charles T. Menoher , an artilleryman who had commanded the Rainbow Division in France, had been appointed director on the recommendation of his classmate General John Pershing , to maintain operational control of aviation by the ground forces. Mitchell received appointment on February 28, 1919, as Director of Military Aeronautics , to head

2040-687: The British Army . The first colonels in the United States were appointed from colonial militias maintained as reserves to the British Army in the North American colonies. Upon the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , colonial legislatures would grant commissions to men to raise a regiment and serve as its colonel. Thus, the first U.S. colonels were usually respected men with ties in local communities and active in politics. With

2142-688: The Curtiss Flying School at Newport News, Virginia . In March 1912, after assignments in the Philippines that saw him tour battlefields of the Russo-Japanese War and conclude that war with Japan was inevitable one day, Mitchell was one of 21 officers selected to serve on the General Staff —at the time, its youngest member at age 32. He appeared in August 1913 at legislative hearings considering

SECTION 20

#1732844498831

2244-522: The Lampert Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives and sharply castigated Army and Navy leadership. The War Department had endorsed a proposal to establish a "General Headquarters Air Force" as a vehicle for modernization and expansion of the Air Service, to be funded through shared appropriations for aviation with the Navy, but shelved the plan when the Navy refused, incensing Mitchell. In March 1925, when Mitchell's term as Assistant Chief of

2346-546: The National Defense University or one of the other U.S. military services. Some people known as "colonels" are actually recipients of honorary colonel ranks from a state governor and are not officers of the U.S. military. In the 19th century, the honorary colonels were military appointments and they still are nominally appointed to a governor's staff, but without military rights or duties. Examples of honorary colonels include Colonel Harland Sanders of KFC fame,

2448-647: The Philippines , where MacArthur was placed in charge of the Department of Northern Luzon in the spring of 1899. Mitchell participated in operations against Filipino insurgents in northern and central Luzon at the end of the Spanish-American War and during the Philippine–American War . He quickly gained a commission due to his father's influence and joined the U.S. Army Signal Corps . Following

2550-760: The United Mine Workers , Stone Mountain Coal Company , the Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency , and other groups after the Matewan Massacre . Miners outraged by the ambush slaying of Matewan Police Chief Sid Hatfield by agents for the coal company marched on Mingo and Logan County leading to the Battle of Blair Mountain , August 25 to September 2, 1921. On August 26, Mitchell commanded Army bombers from Maryland to Charleston, West Virginia . Mitchell told

2652-706: The United States Army during the Spanish-American War , though he eventually graduated from the school. While there he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. Upon dropping out of Columbian at age 18, he enlisted in the United States Army as a private and was mustered into Company M of the 1st Wisconsin Infantry Regiment on May 14, 1898. Mitchell was immediately assigned and mobilized into Brigadier General Arthur MacArthur 's command in

2754-408: The United States Army , Marine Corps , Air Force and Space Force , is the most senior field-grade military officer rank , immediately above the rank of lieutenant colonel and just below the rank of brigadier general . Colonel is equivalent to the naval rank of captain in the other uniformed services . By law, an officer previously required at least 22 years of cumulative service and

2856-510: The War of 1812 the Army grew rapidly and many colonels were appointed, but most of these colonels were discharged when their regiments were disbanded at the war's conclusion. A number of other colonels were appointed by brevet – an honorary promotion usually for distinguished service in combat. The American Civil War saw a large influx of colonels as the rank was commonly held in both the Confederate army and Union Army by those who commanded

2958-503: The 13 judges was Major General Douglas MacArthur , who later described the order to sit on Mitchell's court-martial as "one of the most distasteful orders I ever received." Of the thirteen judges, ( Charles Pelot Summerall , William S. Graves , Robert L. Howze , MacArthur, Benjamin A. Poore , Fred W. Sladen , Ewing E. Booth , Albert J. Bowley , George Irwin , Edward K. King, Frank R. McCoy , Edwin B. Winans , and Blanton Winship ), none had aviation experience and three (Summerall, who

3060-401: The 3/16-inch (4.75mm)-thick armor. Takeoff runs were very long by the standards of the day. The GA-1s were extremely unpopular with the pilots conducting the evaluation. As a result, in 1925 the entire country's attack air force (3rd Attack Group that is, as differentiated from the bomber force) consisted of fourteen Airco DH-4 machines, inadequate even for training, let alone for combat. It

3162-559: The AWC distance learning program. Still other USAF colonels a JPME program via the National Defense University (i.e., National War College , Eisenhower School ) or the program of another service (e.g., Army War College, College of Naval Warfare at the Naval War College , Marine Corps War College ). The AWC resident program includes participation by officers from various other branches of the U.S. armed forces and Allied nations. Completion of

Boeing GA-1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-654: The AWC or an equivalent program is a de facto requirement for promotion to colonel in the USAF, to include the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard . Marine colonels may graduate from the Marine Corps War College or, like all other branches, may receive credit via non-resident attendance at another installation, via correspondence, or will be graduates of an equivalent senior JPME program sponsored by

3366-643: The Air Service expired, he reverted to his permanent rank of colonel and was transferred to San Antonio , Texas, as air officer to the Eighth Corps Area . Although such demotions were not unusual in demobilizations (Patrick himself had gone from major general to colonel upon returning to the Army Corps of Engineers in 1919), the move was widely seen as punishment and exile, since Mitchell had petitioned to remain as Assistant Chief when his term expired, and his transfer to an assignment with no political influence at

3468-400: The Air Service. The court found the truth or falsity of Mitchell's accusations to be immaterial to the charge and on December 17, 1925, found him "guilty of all specifications and of the charge". The court suspended him from active duty for five years without pay, which President Coolidge later reduced to half-pay. The generals' ruling in the case wrote, "The Court is thus lenient because of

3570-512: The Air Service. In 1924, Gen. Patrick again dispatched him on an inspection tour, this time to Hawaii and Asia, to get him off the front pages. Mitchell came back with a 324-page report that predicted future war with Japan, including the attack on Pearl Harbor . Of note, Mitchell discounted the value of aircraft carriers in an attack on the Hawaiian Islands , believing they were of little practical use because they could not operate effectively on

3672-895: The Air Service: Mitchell took command on May 27 after testing bombs, fuses, and other equipment at Aberdeen Proving Ground and began training in anti-ship bombing techniques. Alexander Seversky , a veteran Russian pilot who had bombed German ships in the Great War , joined the effort, suggesting the bombers aim near the ships so that expanding water pressure from the underwater blasts would stave in and separate hull plates. Further discussion with Captain Alfred Wilkinson Johnson , Commander, Naval Air Force U.S. Atlantic Fleet aboard USS Shawmut , confirmed that near-miss bombs would inflict more damage than direct hits; near-misses would cause an underwater concussive effect against

3774-439: The Army or Navy, primarily legislation introduced concurrently in August 1919 by Senator Harry New of Indiana and Representative Charles F. Curry of California, influenced by the recommendations of a fact-finding commission sent to Europe under the direction of Assistant Secretary of War Benedict Crowell in early 1919 that contradicted the findings of Army boards and advocated an independent air force. Mitchell believed that

3876-580: The Army's adjutant general , ordered Summerall and McNair to provide testimony. They refuted Mitchell's claims that during his time in Hawaii in 1923 the Hawaiian Department had no plan to defend Oahu from Japanese attack. They also demonstrated that Mitchell was incorrect in stating that the Air Service was not treated fairly in the distribution of resources in Hawaii; in fact, Summerall had reallocated funding, equipment and other items from other branches to

3978-547: The Hawaiian Department's assistant chief of staff for operations (G-3). During the Army's ongoing debate over the best methods for providing coastal defense, which engaged proponents of the Coast Artillery branch and Army Air Service, McNair's panel compared the use of coast artillery and aircraft for shore defense. The panel concluded that coastal artillery was sufficient, provided that adequate listening and lighting equipment for detecting and illuminating enemy ships and planes

4080-539: The Navy and President Harding were incensed by an apparent demonstration of naval weakness just after Harding had announced, on July 10, invitations to other naval powers to gather in Washington for a conference on the limitation of naval armaments. Statements asserting the obsolescence of the battleship by disarmament proponents in Congress such as Senator William Borah heightened official anxiety. Both services tried to defuse

4182-581: The Navy chose an area 50 mi (80 km) off the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay rather than either of two possible closer areas, minimizing the effective time the Army's bombers would have in the target area. The planes were forbidden from using aerial torpedoes, would be permitted only two hits on the battleship using their heaviest bombs, and would have to stop between hits so that a damage assessment party could go aboard. Smaller ships could not be struck by bombs larger than 600 pounds, and also were subject to

Boeing GA-1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-622: The Navy was going to bury the results. The Chief of the Air Corps attempted to have Mitchell dismissed a week before the tests began, reacting to Navy complaints about Mitchell's criticisms, but the new Secretary of War John W. Weeks backed down when it became apparent that Mitchell had widespread public and media support. On May 1, 1921, Mitchell assembled the 1st Provisional Air Brigade , an air and ground crew of 125 aircraft and 1,000 men at Langley Field in Hampton, Virginia , using six squadrons from

4386-470: The Ostfriesland. We could see her rise eight to ten feet between the terrific blows from under water. On the fourth shot, Capt Streett, sitting in the back seat of my plane stood up and waving both arms shouted, "She is gone!" There were no direct hits but at least three of the bombs landed close enough to rip hull plates as well as cause the ship to roll over. The ship sank at 12:40 pm, 22 minutes after

4488-454: The Senate. On April 27, Mitchell was reappointed as a brigadier general with date of rank retroactive to July 2, 1920. Mitchell did not share in the common belief that World War I would be the war to end war . "If a nation ambitious for universal conquest gets off to a flying start in a war of the future", he said, "it may be able to control the whole world more easily than a nation has controlled

4590-461: The United States Army and refused to wear the insignia of a Confederate general , stating that he would only accept permanent promotion when the Confederacy had defeated the U.S. and achieved its independence. After the end of the Civil War, the rank of colonel again became rare as the forces of the United States Army downsized and became extremely small. However, many U.S. colonels were appointed in

4692-410: The ability of bombers to sink battleships and organized a series of bombing runs against stationary ships designed to test the idea. He antagonized many administrative leaders of the Army with his arguments and criticism and in 1925, his temporary appointment as a brigadier general was not renewed, and he reverted to his permanent rank of colonel , due to his insubordination . Later that year, he

4794-449: The air phase of the Battle of Saint-Mihiel , one of the first coordinated air-ground offensives in history. He was elevated to the rank of (temporary) brigadier general on October 14, 1918, and commanded all American air combat units in France. He ended the war as Chief of Air Service and Chief Group of Armies. Recognized as one of the top American combat airmen of the war alongside aces such as his good friend, Eddie Rickenbacker , he

4896-456: The attacks from the controls of his DH-4 aircraft, nicknamed The Osprey . On July 20, 1921, the Navy brought out the ex-German World War I battleship, Ostfriesland . On the scheduled day, 230, 550, and 600 lb (100, 250, and 270 kg) bomb attacks by Navy, Marine Corps, and Army aircraft settled the Ostfriesland three feet by the stern with a five-degree list to port. She

4998-420: The aviation industry clearly considered impossible. His design, designated GAX, first flew at McCook Field on 26 May 1920. The GAX was McCook Field Project P129 and wore AAS serial number 63272. Aerodynamic cleanliness was sacrificed to fields of fire for its eight machine guns. The sturdy structure was able to carry a heavy load of ammunition along with about 2,200 lb (998 kg) of armor plate. The result

5100-587: The bow. At this point, Capt. Walter R. Lawson's flight of bombers, consisting of two Handley-Page O/400 and six Martin NBS-1 bombers loaded with 2,000 lb (910 kg) bombs, was dispatched. One Handley Page dropped out for mechanical reasons, but the NBS-1s dropped six bombs in quick succession between 12:18 pm and 12:31 pm. Bomb aiming points were for the water near the ship. Mitchell described Lawson's attack, "Four bombs hit in rapid succession, close alongside

5202-675: The cessation of hostilities, Mitchell remained in the Army. From 1900 to 1904, Mitchell was posted in the District of Alaska as a lieutenant in the Signal Corps. On May 26, 1900, the United States Congress appropriated $ 450,000 to establish a communications system connecting the many isolated and widely separated U.S. Army outposts and civilian Gold Rush camps in Alaska by telegraph . Along with Captain George C. Brunnell, Lieutenant Mitchell oversaw

SECTION 50

#1732844498831

5304-477: The colonel's eagle has a distinct right and left insignia. All other commissioned officer rank insignia can be worn on either the right or left side. Colonels are sometimes referred to (but not addressed as) full colonels , bird colonels , or full bird colonels because lieutenant colonels are also referred to and addressed in correspondence as "colonel". Referring to an "O-6", a colonel's pay grade, also may differentiate colonels and lieutenant colonels , who have

5406-584: The construction of what became known as the Washington-Alaska Military Cable and Telegraph System (WAMCATS). He predicted as early as 1906, while an instructor at the Army's Signal School in Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, that future conflicts would take place in the air, not on the ground. In 1908, as a young Signal Corps officer, Mitchell observed Orville Wright's flying demonstration at Fort Myer , Virginia . Mitchell took flight lessons at

5508-534: The demonstration after news leaked of its own tests. To counter Mitchell, the Navy had sunk the old battleship Indiana near Tangier Island , Virginia , on November 1, 1920, using its own airplanes. Daniels had hoped to squelch Mitchell by releasing a report on the results written by Captain William D. Leahy stating that, "The entire experiment pointed to the improbability of a modern battleship being either destroyed or completely put out of action by aerial bombs." When

5610-454: The eagle has a U.S. shield superimposed on its chest and is holding an olive branch and bundle of arrows in its talons . However, in simplification of the Great Seal image, the insignia lacks the scroll in the eagle's mouth and the rosette above its head. On the Great Seal, the olive branch is always clutched in the eagle's right-side talons, while the bundle of arrows is always clutched in

5712-680: The eagle to the wearer's right or to the front," with the olive branch clutched in the eagle's right (or forward) hand talons (see Department of the Army Pamphlet 670-1, paragraph 21-6 [a][1]). In the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, United States Coast Guard, NOAA, and the PHSCC, the eagle is worn with "the head facing forward" on the wearer's right side of the garrison cover (see Marine Corps Order P1020.34G, Uniform Regulation, paragraph 4005d[1]). Since respective service's officer insignia

5814-522: The effects of smaller munitions. Navy studies of the wreck of the Ostfriesland show she had suffered little topside damage from bombs and was sunk by progressive flooding that might have been stemmed by a fast-acting damage control party on board the vessel. Mitchell used the sinking for his own publicity purposes, though his results were downplayed in public by General of the Armies John J. Pershing who hoped to smooth Army/Navy relations. The efficacy of

5916-572: The first bomb, with a seventh bomb dropped by the Handley Page on the foam rising up from the sinking ship. Nearby the site, observing, were various foreign and domestic officials aboard the USS ; Henderson . Although Mitchell had stressed "war-time conditions", the tests were under static conditions and the sinking of the Ostfriesland was accomplished by violating rules agreed upon by General Pershing that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine

6018-505: The first flight by an American officer over German lines, flying with a French pilot. Before long, Mitchell had gained enough experience to begin preparations for American air operations. Mitchell rapidly earned a reputation as a daring, flamboyant, and tireless leader. In May, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. He was promoted to the temporary rank of colonel on October 10, 1917, to rank from August 5. In September 1918, he planned and led nearly 1,500 British, French, and Italian aircraft in

6120-749: The flying component of the Air Service, but that office was in name only as it was a wartime agency that would expire six months after the signing of a peace treaty. Menoher instituted a reorganization of the Air Service based on the divisional system of the AEF , eliminating the DMA as an organization, and Mitchell was assigned as third assistant executive, in charge of the Training and Operations Group, Office of Director of Air Service (ODAS), in April 1919. He maintained his temporary wartime rank of brigadier general until June 18, 1920, when he

6222-404: The future, "a dominating factor in the world's development", both for national defense and economic benefit. Winged Defense sold only 4,500 copies between August 1925 and January 1926, the months surrounding the publicity of the court martial, and so Mitchell did not reach a wide audience. Mitchell experienced difficulties within the Army, notably with his superiors when he appeared before

SECTION 60

#1732844498831

6324-403: The ground forces "for personal reasons". A reciprocal resignation offer from Mitchell was refused. Major General Mason Patrick was again chosen by Pershing to sort out a mess in the Air Service and became the new chief on October 5. Patrick made it clear to Mitchell that although he would accept Mitchell's expertise as counsel, all decisions would be made by Patrick. When Mitchell soon got into

6426-402: The ground or navies on the sea can be the arbiter of a nation's destiny in war. The main power of defense and the power of initiative against an enemy has passed to the air. – November 1918 In 1922, while in Europe for General Patrick, Mitchell met the Italian air power theorist Giulio Douhet and soon afterwards an excerpted translation of Douhet's The Command of the Air began to circulate in

6528-434: The growing obsolescence of the surface fleet. His assurances that the Air Service could develop whatever bomb was needed to sink a battleship, and that a national defense organization of land, sea, and air components was essential and inevitable, were met with cool hostility. Mitchell found his ideas publicly denounced as "pernicious" by Roosevelt. Convinced that within as soon as ten years strategic air bombardment would become

6630-417: The high seas or deliver "sufficient aircraft in the air at one time to insure a concentrated operation". Instead, Mitchell believed a surprise attack on the Hawaiian Islands would be conducted by land-based aircraft operating from islands in the Pacific. His report, published in 1925 as the book Winged Defense , foretold wider benefits of an investment in air power, believing it to be, at both that time and in

6732-406: The hull. The Navy and the Air Service were at cross purposes regarding the tests. Supported by General Pershing, the Navy set rules and conditions that enhanced the survivability of the targets, stating that the purpose of the tests was to determine how much damage ships could withstand. The ships had to be sunk in at least 100  fathoms of water (so as not to become navigational hazards), and

6834-406: The insignia is worn on the officer's left side while a mirror-image reverse version is worn on the right side, such that both of the eagles' heads face forward, to the wearer's front. The insignia for a colonel is a silver eagle which is a stylized representation of the eagle dominating the Great Seal of the United States (which is the coat of arms of the United States). As on the Great Seal,

6936-474: The last days of the civil disturbance, Mitchell's bombers flew several reconnaissance missions but did not engage in combat; one bomber crashed on a return flight, killing three crew members. On September 3, surrounded by 2,000 Army troops, Chafin's force dispersed and most miners went home although some surrendered to the Army. Later, Mitchell cited the "Mingo War" as an example of the potential for air power in civil disturbances. The day has passed when armies on

7038-403: The left-side talons. The head of the eagle faces towards the olive branch, rather than the arrows, advocating peace rather than war. As a result, the head of the eagle always faces towards the viewer's left. Some colonel eagles from the 1920s to the 1950s faced the arrows, though this is no longer done. The full-sized colonel eagle is 3/4 inches tall and 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches in diameter from

7140-495: The military record of the Accused during the World War." MacArthur (who himself in 1951 was removed from duty for similar reasons) later said he had voted to acquit, and Fiorello La Guardia said that MacArthur's "not guilty" ballot had been found in the judges' anteroom. MacArthur felt "that a senior officer should not be silenced for being at variance with his superiors in rank and with accepted doctrine." Colonel (United States) A colonel ( / ˈ k ɜːr n əl / ) in

7242-410: The morning of July 21, in accordance with a strictly orchestrated schedule of attacks, five Martin NBS-1 bombers led by 1st Lt. Clayton Bissell dropped a single 1,100 lb (500 kg) bomb each, scoring three direct hits. The Navy stopped further drops, although the Army bombers had nine bombs remaining, to assess damage. By noon, Ostfriesland had settled two more feet by the stern and one foot by

7344-410: The most modern battleships, can be destroyed easily by bombs dropped from aircraft, and further, that the most effective means of destruction are bombs. [They] demonstrated beyond a doubt that, given sufficient bombing planes—in short an adequate air force—aircraft constitute a positive defense of our country against hostile invasion. The fact of battleship sinking was indisputable, and Mitchell repeated

7446-493: The national defense." In October 1925, a charge with eight specifications was proffered against Mitchell on the direct order of President Calvin Coolidge , accusing him of violation of the 96th Article of War, an omnibus article that Mitchell's chief counsel, Congressman Frank Reid , declared to be unconstitutional as a violation of free speech. The court-martial began in early November and lasted for seven weeks. The youngest of

7548-460: The performance twice in tests conducted with like results on the U.S. pre-dreadnought battleships Alabama in September 1921, and the Virginia and New Jersey in September 1923. The latter two ships were subjected to teargas attacks and hit with specially designed 4,300 lb (2,000 kg) demolition bombs. The bombing tests had several immediate and turbulent results. Almost immediately

7650-486: The post-war reduction of the U.S. Army, the rank of colonel disappeared, and was not re-introduced until 1802. The first insignia for the rank of colonel consisted of gold epaulettes worn on the blue uniform of the Continental Army . The rank of colonel was relatively rare in the early 19th century, partly because the U.S. Army was very small, and the rank was usually obtained only after long years of service. During

7752-513: The press that Army bombers alone could end the "Mingo War" by dropping tear gas on the miners. A private army of 3,000 led by Sheriff Don Chafin and financed by the Coal Operators Association engaged in gun battles and used private planes to drop dynamite charges and World War I surplus gas and explosive bombs against an estimated 13,000 miners. Neither side responded to President Harding's August 30 proclamation to cease hostilities. In

7854-765: The rank of colonel during these two wars. The Military Promotion System was revised and standardized for all the services in 1980 as a result of passage of the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act . Contemporary U.S. colonels usually command Army infantry, artillery, armor, aviation, special forces, or other types of brigades or regiments as well as large installations; USMC regiments , Marine Expeditionary Units , Marine Aircraft Groups, or installations such as Marine Corps Bases or Marine Corps Air Stations; USAF groups or wings ; and USSF deltas . An Army colonel typically commands brigade-sized units (4,000 to 6,000 soldiers), with another colonel or

7956-401: The requirements of sea-based aviation than ground forces commanders understood the capabilities and potential of air power, and vigorously resisted any alliance with Mitchell. The Navy's civilian leadership was equally opposed, if for other reasons. On April 3, Mitchell met with Roosevelt and a board of admirals to discuss aviation, and Mitchell urged the development of naval aviation because of

8058-520: The results by reports from the Joint Board and General Pershing dismissing Mitchell's claims and suppressing his report, but the report was leaked to the press. In September, General Charles T. Menoher forced a showdown over Mitchell as the bombing tests continued. Menoher confronted Secretary Weeks and demanded that Weeks either relieve Mitchell as Assistant Chief of Air Corps or he would resign. On October 4, Weeks allowed Menoher to resign and return to

8160-642: The same interruptions in attacks. Mitchell held to the Navy's restrictions for the tests of June 21, July 13, and July 18, and successfully sank the ex-German destroyer G-102 and the ex-German light cruiser Frankfurt in concert with Navy aircraft. On each of these demonstrations the ships were first attacked by SE-5 fighters strafing and bombing the decks of the ships with 25-pound anti-personnel bombs to simulate suppression of antiaircraft fire, followed by attacks from Martin NBS-1 (Martin MB-2) twin-engine bombers using high explosive demolition bombs. Mitchell observed

8262-468: The section until the new head, Lieutenant Colonel George O. Squier , arrived from attaché duties in London, England, where World War I was in progress, then became his permanent assistant. In June, he took private flying lessons at the Curtiss Flying School because he was proscribed by law from aviator training by age and rank, at an expense to himself of $ 1,470 (approximately $ 33,000 in 2015). In July 1916, he

8364-570: The shopping precinct of Mitchell Street were named in honor of Alexander. His paternal grandmother, Martha Reed Mitchell , was well known in charity, art and society circles. Mitchell's sister Ruth fought with the Chetniks in Yugoslavia during World War II and later wrote a book about her brother, My Brother Bill . Mitchell was accepted into Columbian University (later renamed George Washington University) in Washington, D.C., but dropped out to join

8466-445: The tests remains in debate to this day. Nevertheless, the test was highly influential at the time, causing budgets to be redrawn for further air development and forcing the Navy to look more closely at the possibilities of naval air power. Despite the advantages enjoyed by the bombers in the artificial exercise, Mitchell's report stressed points which would later be highly influential in war: sea craft of all kinds, up to and including

8568-426: The tips of each wing. However, when worn as a single insignia with no matching pair, such as on the patrol cap , garrison cap / flight cap , or the front of the Army, Air Force, or Space Force OCP uniform, there is a split between the services on which mirror image of the eagle should be worn. In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Space Force, the eagle is always worn with "the head of

8670-500: The use of aircraft, and that would keep aviation in the news. In February 1921, at the urging of Mitchell, who was anxious to test his theories of destruction of ships by aerial bombing, Secretary of War Newton Baker and Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels agreed to a series of joint Army-Navy exercises, known as Project B , to be held that summer in which surplus or captured ships could be used as targets. Mitchell

8772-477: The use of floating bases was necessary to defend the nation against naval threats, but the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral William S. Benson , had dissolved Naval Aeronautics as an organization early in 1919, a decision later reversed by Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt . However, senior naval aviators feared that land-based aviators in a "unified" independent air force would no more understand

8874-596: The volunteers during the Spanish–American War , prominent among them Theodore Roosevelt and David Grant Colson . World War I and World War II saw the largest numbers of colonels ever appointed in the U.S. military. This was mostly due to the temporary ranks of the National Army and the Army of the United States , where those who would normally hold the rank of Captain in the peacetime Regular Army were thrust into

8976-496: Was court-martialed for insubordination after accusing Army and Navy leaders of an "almost treasonable administration of the national defense" for investing in battleships. He resigned from the service shortly afterwards. Mitchell received many honors following his death, including a Congressional Gold Medal. He is also the first person for whom an American military aircraft design, the North American B-25 Mitchell ,

9078-474: Was 336 including 198 army officers and the rest divided among other military branches, domestic inter-agency representatives and other foreign military leaders. A high concentration of USAF colonels graduate from the Air War College (AWC) at Maxwell AFB , Alabama via in-residence at Maxwell AFB, while other USAF colonels complete AWC via a non-resident seminar program paralleling the in-residence program or

9180-516: Was a United States Army officer who had a major role in the creation of the United States Air Force . Mitchell served in France during World War I and, by the conflict's end, commanded all American air combat units in that country. After the war, he was appointed deputy director of the Air Service and began advocating for increased investment in air power, believing that this would prove vital in future wars. He argued particularly for

9282-406: Was an angular machine of wire-braced wooden construction with plywood and fabric covering. A rectangular-section fuselage carried the forward gunner in an open nose position, the pilot in a semi-enclosed cockpit with armored shutters for forward vision, and the rear gunner in an open dorsal position. The engines were carried in mid-wing nacelles. As designed, the armament was comprehensive. The pilot

9384-440: Was available, and that bombers were less accurate, but more effective at destroying enemy ships at longer distances from shore, provided they could overcome obstacles including inclement weather. Summerall, the department commander, was so incensed at Mitchell's questioning of his and McNair's integrity that he attempted to be appointed as president of the court-martial. During Mitchell's trial, Major General Robert Courtney Davis ,

9486-577: Was concerned that the building of dreadnoughts was taking precious defense dollars away from military aviation. He was convinced that a force of anti-shipping airplanes could defend a coastline with more economy than a combination of coastal guns and naval vessels. A thousand bombers could be built at the same cost as one battleship, and could sink that battleship. Mitchell infuriated the Navy by claiming he could sink ships "under war conditions", and boasted he could prove it if he were permitted to bomb captured German battleships. The Navy reluctantly agreed to

9588-554: Was evaluated at McCook as project P187. The follow-on GA-2 was flown at McCook field in December 1921 with orders to construct two more aircraft. The GA-1 were sent to Kelly Field , Texas, in early 1923 for service tests with the only US aerial attack formation, the 3rd Attack Group . These tests showed the aircraft to be unacceptable. They had poor visibility and performance, particularly in rate of climb, maneuverability, and range. The aircraft suffered from noise and vibrations caused by

9690-404: Was in control of a 37 mm cannon, four fixed Lewis guns fired forward and down, and a machine gun fired forward and upward over the wings. A further two Lewis guns fired to the rear and downwards (through a fuselage tunnel) and a single machine gun up and over the wings. A gunner's position was in the nose. The armor covered the front half of the fuselage and the engine housings. The top wing

9792-456: Was of larger span than the lower ones; the middle and top wings carried ailerons. Span decreased from 65 ft 6 in to 58 ft 6 in between the top and lower wings. On 7 June 1920, Boeing was awarded a contract for 20 production models designated GA-1 . Before the first was delivered in May 1921, the order had been reduced to ten. The production aircraft wore Boeing constructors' numbers 200-209 and AAC serial numbers 64146-64155. Number 64146

9894-757: Was probably the best-known American in Europe. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , the Distinguished Service Medal , the World War I Victory Medal with eight campaign clasps, and several foreign decorations. Despite his superb leadership and his fine combat record, he alienated many of his superiors during and after his 18 months of service in France. Mitchell returned to the United States in January 1919; it had been widely expected throughout

9996-681: Was promoted to major and appointed Chief of the Air Service of the First Army. When the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, Mitchell was in Spain en route to France as an observer. He arrived in Paris on April 10, and set up an office for the Aviation Section from which he collaborated extensively with British and French air leaders such as General Hugh Trenchard , studying their strategies as well as their aircraft. On April 24, he made

10098-522: Was reduced to lieutenant colonel, Signal Corps (Menoher was reduced to brigadier general in the same orders). When the Army was reorganized by Congress on June 4, 1920, the Air Service was recognized as a combatant arm of the line, third in size behind the Infantry and Artillery. On July 1, 1920, Mitchell was promoted to the Regular Army (i.e., permanent) rank of colonel in the Signal Corps, but also received

10200-500: Was rumored that the GA-1s survived until surveyed on 14 January 1926, so that Kelly Field pilots could be threatened with being forced to fly them for disciplinary infractions. All were scrapped in April 1926. Data from "The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft" General characteristics Performance Armament Related lists Billy Mitchell William Lendrum Mitchell (December 29, 1879 – February 19, 1936)

10302-403: Was taking on water. Further bombing was delayed a day, the Navy claiming due to rough seas that prevented their Board of Observers from going aboard, the Air Service countering that as the Army bombers approached, they were ordered not to attack. Mitchell's bombers were forced to circle for 47 minutes, as a result of which they dropped only half their bombs, and none of their large bombs. On

10404-764: Was the president of the court, Sladen, and Bowley) were removed by defense challenges for bias. The case was then presided over by Major General Robert Lee Howze . Among those who testified for Mitchell were Eddie Rickenbacker , Hap Arnold , Carl Spaatz , Ira Eaker , Robert Olds , Thomas George Lanphier Sr. and Fiorello La Guardia . The trial attracted significant interest, and public opinion supported Mitchell. The chief prosecutors were Major Allen W. Gullion , Lieutenant Joseph L. McMullen, and Colonel Sherman Moreland . Mitchell's public assertions about non-aviation officers being ignorant of aviation matters were shown to be based on events he falsely claimed to have witnessed in Hawaii during experiments led by Lesley J. McNair ,

#830169