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63-398: This bottle shape is derived from that of field bottles , which were known already in antiquity, and which were manufactured with a flattened shape for practical purposes, for example to keep the bottle from rolling away on uneven ground. The Bocksbeutel has been used for wine from Franconia at least since the early 18th century, initially for the wines from the region's most famous vineyard,

126-424: A polymer blend , such as high impact polystyrene . Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders. The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make

189-514: A screw cap , the cap frequently being secured to the bottle neck with a short chain or strap to prevent loosening. These were an improvement over glass bottles, but were subject to developing pinhole leaks if dented, dropped or bumped against jagged rocks. Contemporary designs are made of plastic (especially polyethylene or polycarbonate ), titanium, aluminum or stainless steel. Double-walled metal canteens keep their contents hot or cold. Single-walled metal canteens are generally lighter and have

252-512: A conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene , has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation ; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that

315-619: A finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride , the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity. The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA),

378-408: A large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over

441-417: A material with inconsistent properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different colored plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discolored or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling. Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning

504-495: A mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include: Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020. Regional differences in

567-486: A new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste. "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival." Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have

630-692: A particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics , thermosets , conductive polymers , biodegradable plastics , engineering plastics and elastomers . One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not. Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid. If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In

693-674: A pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While

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756-519: A turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$ 366 billion in revenue. In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics – polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together represent 86% of all plastics. Plastic

819-594: A variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article; it refers to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances. Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers . Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone

882-671: A wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum ; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives. Between 1950 and 2017 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made; more than half of this has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tons of plastic were produced. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it

945-544: A wine bottle is an unlikely object to use for such a purpose. Both a Booksbüdel and a ram's scrotum are perfectly suitable, being small and light objects with a connotation of ridiculousness. Thus, it is hard to determine to what extent either Booksbüdel or Bokesbudel or both contributed to the modern term. Within the European Union , the Bocksbeutel enjoys the status of a protected bottle shape. The regulations describe

1008-432: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to camping is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Plastic Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded , extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus

1071-403: Is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment. Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium , chromium , lead and mercury (regulated under

1134-518: Is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring. A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease. As of January 2010,

1197-555: Is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles ( stretchable fabrics , fleece ), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body panels , wing mirrors ), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts. In optics, plastics are used to manufacture aspheric lenses. Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter

1260-488: Is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins . A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

1323-496: Is estimated that annual global plastic production will reach over 1.1 billion tons by 2050. The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems, due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics . Plastic pollution can be found in all

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1386-446: Is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers , plasticizers and dyes , which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form

1449-414: Is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give

1512-573: Is supposed to be of similar shape as the bottle. This explanation is given as early as 1690 in a dictionary by Kaspar von Stieler . The term Bokesbudel with this meaning is said to have existed in the Early Middle Age, before song books were used. However, the explanations are not mutually exclusive. Franconia is well distant from the Low German-speaking lands, and a term like Booksbüdel would not normally have been understood there. If

1575-498: Is that it is derived from the Low German term Booksbüdel , which stands for a small sack used to protect and carry books , in particular prayer books or song books carried on travels (see girdle books ). These sacks were used already in pre- Reformation times, but became eventually outdated and were seen as a whimsical expression of overly conservative behavior. Another claim is that the term actually means " ram 's scrotum ", which

1638-448: Is the part of the chain that is on the main path , linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer. Plastics are usually classified by

1701-630: The Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $ 30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate , present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell . The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic. Because

1764-464: The Minamata Convention on Mercury ), which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income countries. In 2023, plasticosis ,

1827-565: The Würzburger Stein, and later for other Franconian wines, in particular those of better quality. The city council of Würzburg decided in 1728 that the best wines from the city's own winery, the Bürgerspital , should be filled in Bocksbeutel bottles. There are two conflicting claims of the origin of the name Bocksbeutel, although the Beutel -part stands for "container" in both cases. One claim

1890-462: The polymerization of their starting materials ( monomers ); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries , with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale . Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production. This includes

1953-430: The Bocksbeutel as a short-necked glass bottle, pot-bellied but flattened in shape, with the base and the cross-section of the bottle at the point of greatest convexity ellipsoidal in shape. The ratio between the long and short axes of the ellipsoidal cross-section is approximately 2:1, and the ratio of the height of the convex body to the cylindrical neck of the bottle is approximately 2.5:1. The Bocksbeutel may be used for

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2016-491: The EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes. In a global market analysis, 5,500 additives were found. At a minimum, all plastic contains some polymer stabilizers which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without suffering polymer degradation . Other additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on

2079-481: The Greek πλαστικός ( plastikos ), meaning "capable of being shaped or molded ;" in turn, it is from πλαστός ( plastos ) meaning "molded." As a noun , the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing. The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding , extrusion or compression into

2142-598: The Low German term was adopted in Franconia, any similar local words are likely to have influenced this process. There is a later expression einen Bocksbeutel anhängen ("to attach a Bocksbeutel [to someone]"), meaning "to make someone an object of ridicule", attested in the 19th-century Deutsches Wörterbuch . A physical Bocksbeutel was indeed used as a practical joke (cf. the " Kick me " prank, cuckold horns and other forms of public humiliation such as "donkey ears"), but

2205-547: The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe, there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China, there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large population. The largest application for plastics

2268-499: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards". As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling

2331-486: The additives' function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total volume. Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers. Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in

2394-787: The advantage that they may be placed over an open fire or stove to sterilize water or prepare hot beverages. Hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari used ostrich eggshells as water containers, puncturing a hole in them to enable them to be used as canteens. The presence of such eggshells dating from the Howiesons Poort period of the Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa suggests canteens were used by humans as early as 60,000 years ago. This article about an item of drinkware or tool used in preparation or serving of drink

2457-534: The birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives). From the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually. Plastics are produced in chemical plants by

2520-690: The chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on

2583-448: The chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber . There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since

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2646-802: The chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics , polyesters , silicones , polyurethanes , and halogenated plastics . Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation , polyaddition , and cross-linking . They can also be classified by their physical properties, including hardness , density , tensile strength , thermal resistance , and glass transition temperature . Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation , and ionizing radiation . Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for

2709-452: The commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties. Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of

2772-443: The contents of the bottle cool. Many canteens also include a nested canteen cup. Primitive canteens were sometimes made of hollowed-out gourds, such as a calabash , or were bags made of leather. Later, canteens consisted of a glass bottle in a woven basket cover. The bottle was usually closed with a cork stopper. Designs of the mid-1900s were made of metal – tin -plated steel, stainless steel or aluminum  – with

2835-508: The developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging. In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years. The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite , invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland , who coined

2898-651: The effects of such leachates , the EU has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, DPB , BBP , DINP , DIDP , and DnOP in children's toys and child-care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act . Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances). Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols . While

2961-401: The environment. Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by

3024-407: The finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field. Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins,

3087-442: The following wines: Field bottle A canteen is a reusable drinking water bottle designed to be used by hikers, campers, soldiers, bush firefighters, and workers in the field. It is usually fitted with a shoulder strap or means for fastening it to a belt, and may be covered with a cloth bag and padding to protect the bottle and insulate the contents. If the padding is soaked with water, evaporative cooling can help keep

3150-568: The host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of color. Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form

3213-604: The majority of products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar flow , leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product. The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in

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3276-450: The nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially harmful. The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste

3339-709: The plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these were still relatively costly as of 2021. While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch. Due both to

3402-571: The plastic into almost any shape. For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar. The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in

3465-464: The preferred choice for the mass production everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability , are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics. A huge number of plastics exist beyond

3528-413: The properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications. Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely. Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products. In

3591-528: The term "plastics". Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene , which is widely used in product packaging , and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger , who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry ," and Herman Mark , known as "the father of polymer physics ". The word plastic derives from

3654-762: The thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber ( polyisoprene ) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid. Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called commodity plastics . Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC): Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibers are often also included as major commodity classes, although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them

3717-444: The volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight. High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialized applications which make use of their superior properties. Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure), including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit

3780-511: The volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$ 200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6 million people with

3843-497: The world's major water bodies , for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled. In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping , plumbing or vinyl siding . Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic ), furniture, and toys. In

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3906-726: The world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery). Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e.

3969-638: Was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015. The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding , conversion and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials, the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors: Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since

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