143-549: Bobbio Abbey (Italian: Abbazia di San Colombano ) is a monastery founded by Irish Saint Columbanus in 614, around which later grew up the town of Bobbio , in the province of Piacenza , Emilia-Romagna, Italy. It is dedicated to Saint Columbanus . It was famous as a centre of resistance to Arianism and as one of the greatest libraries in the Middle Ages . The abbey was dissolved under the French administration in 1803, although many of
286-536: A fief , with Bolesław I recognizing Henry II as his overlord. Henry II refused to allow Bolesław I to keep possession of Meissen, however. Shortly after Bolesław I's departure from Merseburg, an assassination attempt was made against him. Though the attempt failed, Bolesław I was seriously injured. The Polish Duke accused Henry II of instituting the attack, and relations between the two countries were severed. Bolesław I also refused to pay tribute to Germany. Prior to open rebellion in 1004, Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia ,
429-731: A Byzantine ally in 1026. Upon assuming the German throne, Henry II revised many policies of his predecessor, Emperor Otto III . Whereas Otto III had promoted a policy of "Restoration of the Roman Empire" ( Renovatio imperii Romanorum ), Henry II sought a policy of "Restoration of the Frankish Kingdom" ( Renovatio regni Francorum ). Compared to the other members of the Ottonian dynasty , Henry II spent relatively little time in Italy, only traveling south of
572-449: A German army and proclaimed himself Duke. The state he regained was a small one, however, as Polish forces would hold Moravia , Silesia , and Lusatia until 1018. During the next part of the offensive, Henry II retook Meissen and, in summer 1005, his army advanced deep into Poland, suffering significant losses along the way. At the Polish city of Poznań , the German forces were ambushed by
715-458: A cave seven miles away, with a single companion who acted as messenger between himself and his companions. Tensions arose in 603 CE when St. Columbanus and his followers argued with Frankish bishops over the exact date of Easter. (St. Columbanus celebrated Easter according to Celtic rites and the Celtic Christian calendar.) The Frankish bishops may have feared his growing influence. During
858-536: A centre of resistance to Arianism and a base for the conversion of the Lombard people. It was not until the reign of Grimoald I (663–673), himself a convert, that the bulk of the Lombards accepted Catholic Christianity. Theodelinda's nephew Aripert I (653–663) restored all the lands of Bobbio that belonged by right to the pope. Aripert II confirmed this restitution to Pope John VII in 707. The Lombards soon dispossessed
1001-475: A close when Arduin became ill and sought peace with Henry II. He resigned the office of Margrave of Ivrea to become a monk in a monastery at Fruttuaria . He died on 14 December 1015. His brief "reign" as King of Italy would be the last time a native Italian would reign over Italy until its unification under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861. After Arduin's death Henry ordered the Margravate of Ivrea, which had given
1144-420: A concubine, Brunhilda became his bitterest foe because she feared the loss of her influence if Theuderic II married. Brunhilda incited the court and Catholic bishops against Columbanus and Theuderic II confronted Columbanus at Luxeuil, accusing him of violating the "common customs" and "not allowing all Christians" in the monastery. Columbanus asserted his independence to run the monastery without interference and
1287-682: A dispute with members of the Burgundian dynasty. Upon the death of King Guntram of Burgundy, the succession passed to his nephew, Childebert II , the son of his brother Sigebert and Sigebert's wife Brunhilda of Austrasia . When Childebert II died, his territories were divided between his two sons: Theuderic II inherited the Kingdom of Burgundy and Theudebert II inherited the Kingdom of Austrasia . Both were minors and Brunhilda, their grandmother, ruled as their regents. Theuderic II "very often visited" Columbanus, but when Columbanus rebuked him for having
1430-501: A great love for God's creatures. Stories claim that as he walked in the woods, it was not uncommon for birds to land on his shoulders to be caressed, or for squirrels to run down from the trees and nestle in the folds of his cowl. Although a strong defender of Irish traditions, he never wavered in showing deep respect for the Holy See as the supreme authority. His influence in Europe was due to
1573-524: A great-great-grandson of Emperor Otto I , to succeed him after his death in 1024. Conrad was the first of the Salian dynasty of emperors. Henry was born in May 973, the son of Duke Henry II of Bavaria , and Gisela of Burgundy . Through his father, he was the grandson of Duke Henry I of Bavaria , and the great-grandson of King Henry I of Germany . By his mother, he was the grandson of King Conrad I of Burgundy , and
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#17328525389881716-606: A loyal ally of the Empire. However, the protracted German-Polish wars brought the two nations into open warfare for over sixteen years. Henry II inherited several unresolved ecclesiastical disputes from his predecessor Otto III. Issues of particular importance were the reestablishment of the Diocese of Merseburg and the settlement of the Gandersheim Conflict . In May 1017, Empress Cunigunde became seriously ill, while staying at
1859-458: A loyal supporter of Otto III, but Henry II's actions caused Bolesław I to seek new German allies. Of the major candidates seeking to succeed to the German throne, Bolesław I supported Margrave Eckard I of Meissen over Henry. Only after Eckard was assassinated by Saxon nobles in April 1002 did Bolesław I lend his support to Henry II. Bolesław I traveled to Merseburg on 25 July 1002 and paid homage to
2002-692: A period of centralized authority throughout the Holy Roman Empire . He consolidated his power by cultivating personal and political ties with the Catholic Church . He greatly expanded the Ottonian dynasty's custom of employing clerics as counter-weights against secular nobles. Through donations to the Church and the establishment of new dioceses, Henry strengthened imperial rule across the Empire and increased control over ecclesiastical affairs. He stressed service to
2145-442: A pitched battle, and Henry II was forced to turn back, his army weakened by diseases and suffering heavy losses. Henry II almost executed the treacherous prince of Capua, but he relented at the last moment at Pilgrim's pleading. Instead, Henry II sent him off to Germany in chains and appointed Pandulf V to replace him as prince of Capua. The expedition ultimately achieved little, and Pandulf IV would be reinstated as Prince of Capua as
2288-564: A revolt against imperial rule in Italy in 1002. Before Henry II could arrive, however, Otto III died of fever, leaving no heir. After defeating several contenders to the throne, Henry II was crowned King of Germany on 9 July 1002 as the first in a line of kings to adopt the title Rex Romanorum as an antedate to his coronation in Rome as Imperator Romanorum . On 15 May 1004, he was anointed King of Italy ("Rex Italiae"). In that same year, Henry II joined Duke Jaromír of Bohemia in his struggle against
2431-602: A ruined Roman fortress into a school. Despite its remote location in the Vosges Mountains , the school rapidly attracted so many students that they moved to a new site at Luxeuil and then established a second school at Fontaines . These schools remained under Columbanus' authority, and their rules of life reflected the Celtic tradition in which he had been educated. As these communities expanded and drew more pilgrims, Columbanus sought greater solitude. Often he would withdraw to
2574-683: A similar alliance with other Slavic peoples. With his conquest west of the Oder River in 1002, his domain stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Mountains . Furthermore, the Polish Duke was connected by kinship to numerous princes of Scandinavia . Henry II answered Bolesław I's rebellion by invading in the summer of 1004, reaching the Ore Mountains in northern Bohemia. He then conquered
2717-500: A sobering knowledge, have been unable to complete a praiseworthy life". Monks are instructed to pray to God to "illumine this way, surrounded on every side by the world's thickest darkness". Columbanus continues: So discretion has got its name from discerning, for the reason that it discerns in us between good and evil, and also between the moderate and the complete. For from the beginning either class has been divided like light and darkness, that is, good and evil, after evil began through
2860-568: A successful rebellion against Byzantine control of Apulia . The Byzantine Empire struck back in 1018 under Catepan of Italy Basil Boioannes , delivering a devastating defeat to the joint Lombard-Norman force at the Battle of Cannae . Melus fled to the Papal States following the defeat. With the Byzantine successes in southern Italy, Pope Benedict VIII took an unusual step in 1020, traveling north across
3003-519: A suffragan see of the archdiocese of Genoa . From time to time disputes arose between the bishop and the monks, and in 1199 Pope Innocent III issued two bulls, restoring the abbey in spirituals and temporals, and empowering the bishop to depose an abbot if within a certain time he did not obey. Saint Columbanus' abbey and church were taken from the Benedictines by the French occupying forces in 1803, when
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#17328525389883146-520: A tract of land called Bobbio between Milan and Genoa near the Trebbia river, situated in a defile of the Apennine Mountains , to be used as a base for the conversion of the Lombard people. The area contained a ruined church and wastelands known as Ebovium , which had formed part of the lands of the papacy prior to the Lombard invasion. Columbanus wanted this secluded place, for while enthusiastic in
3289-629: Is buried there. The Rule of Saint Columbanus embodied the customs of Bangor Abbey and other Irish monasteries. Much shorter than the Rule of Saint Benedict , the Rule of Saint Columbanus consists of ten chapters, on the subjects of obedience, silence, food, poverty, humility, chastity, choir offices, discretion, mortification, and perfection. In the first chapter, Columbanus introduces the great principle of his Rule: obedience, absolute and unreserved. The words of seniors should always be obeyed, just as "Christ obeyed
3432-406: Is here that the Rule of Saint Columbanus differs significantly from that of Saint Benedict. The Communal Rule of Columbanus required monks to fast every day until None or 3 p.m.; this was later relaxed and observed on designated days. Columbanus' Rule regarding diet was very strict. Monks were to eat a limited diet of beans, vegetables, flour mixed with water and small bread of a loaf, taken in
3575-495: Is indeed judged in his thoughts" and warns, "What profit is it if he be virgin in body, if he be not virgin in mind? For God, being Spirit." In the seventh chapter, Columbanus instituted a service of perpetual prayer, known as laus perennis , by which choir succeeded choir, both day and night. In the eighth chapter, Columbanus stresses the importance of discretion in the lives of monks to avoid "the downfall of some, who beginning without discretion and passing their time without
3718-589: Is of much later date. In the second volume of his Acta Sanctorum O.S.B. , Mabillon gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of Columbanus, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community. Columbanus (the Latinised form of Colmán , meaning little dove ) was born in Leinster , Ireland in 543. After his conception, his mother was said to have had a vision of her child's "remarkable genius". He
3861-543: Is ready. The end of my parchment compels me to finish my letter. Love is not orderly; it is this which has made it confused. Farewell, dear hearts of mine; pray for me that I may live in God. Soon after the ship set sail from Nantes, a severe storm drove the vessel back ashore. Convinced that his holy passenger caused the tempest, the captain refused further attempts to transport the monk. Columbanus found sanctuary with Chlothar II of Neustria at Soissons , who gave him an escort to
4004-454: Is sufficiently clear, calling the pope "his Lord and Father in Christ", the "Chosen Watchman", and the "First Pastor, set higher than all mortals", also asserting that "we Irish, inhabitants of the world’s edge, are disciples of Saints Peter and Paul and of all the disciples" and that "the unity of faith has produced in the whole world a unity of power and privilege." King Agilulf gave Columbanus
4147-425: Is true discretion, that the possibility of spiritual progress may be kept with a temperance that punishes the flesh. For if temperance exceeds measure, it will be a vice and not a virtue; for virtue maintains and retains many goods. Therefore we must fast daily, just as we must feed daily; and while we must eat daily, we must gratify the body more poorly and sparingly ... In the fourth chapter, Columbanus presents
4290-624: Is written: "But the nurture of righteousness is silence and peace". He also warns, "Justly will they be damned who would not say just things when they could, but preferred to say with garrulous loquacity what is evil". In the third chapter, Columbanus instructs, "Let the monks' food be poor and taken in the evening, such as to avoid repletion, and their drink such as to avoid intoxication, so that it may both maintain life and not harm". Columbanus continues: For indeed those who desire eternal rewards must only consider usefulness and use. Use of life must be moderated just as toil must be moderated, since this
4433-519: The Aar and the Limmat , and then on to Lake Zurich . Columbanus chose the village of Tuggen as his initial community, but the work was not successful. He continued north-east by way of Arbon to Bregenz on Lake Constance . Here he found an oratory dedicated to Aurelia of Strasbourg containing three brass images of their tutelary deities. Columbanus commanded Gallus , who knew the local language, to preach to
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4576-561: The Archbishopric of Magdeburg as well as his re-occupation of the marches of Lusatia and Meissen, including the city of Bautzen . The German counter-offensive began three years later in 1010. It was of no significant consequence, beyond some pillaging in Silesia. In 1012, a second peace treaty between Germany and Poland was signed. Bolesław I quickly broke the peace, however, and once again invaded Lusatia. Bolesław I's forces pillaged and burned
4719-513: The Basilica of San Michele Maggiore . Unlike his predecessors, after gaining the Kingdom of Italy Henry II wore two crowns, one for Germany and one for Italy, instead of a common crown representing both realms. After the coronation a dispute arose between some of the residents and Henry's people. It escalated to where the residents attacked the palace where the king was dining. The army encamped outside
4862-460: The Emperor Henry II , on the occasion of his own coronation in Rome, obtained from Pope Benedict VIII the erection of Bobbio as an episcopal see . The diocese was made a suffragan of the metropolitan of Milan. Peter Aldus, its first bishop, had been abbot of Bobbio since 999, and his episcopal successors for a long time lived in the abbey, where many of them had been monks. From 1133 Bobbio was
5005-577: The Holy See . Under the next abbot, Bobolen, the Rule of St. Benedict was introduced. At first its observance was optional, but in the course of time it superseded the stricter Rule of Saint Columbanus , and Bobbio joined the Congregation of Monte Cassino . In 643, at the request of Rotharis and Queen Gundeberga , Pope Theodore I granted to the Abbot of Bobbio the use of the mitre and other pontificals. During
5148-634: The King of Italy Arduin in his capital of Ivrea , where he remained until 1015. Henry II arrived in Rome in early 1014, restoring Benedict VIII as pope. On 14 February 1014, the Pope crowned Henry II as Holy Roman Emperor ("Romanorum Imperator") in St. Peter's Basilica . Then, under the presidency of the Emperor and Pope, a synod was held in Rome, appointing five bishops, issuing decrees against simony and promoting chastity within
5291-898: The March of Verona to face Arduin, but Arduin successfully defeated Otto's troops at the Battle of Fabrica in 1003. In 1004 Henry II responded to calls for aid from Italian bishops and led an invasion into Italy against Arduin. Henry II gathered his troops at Augsburg and marched through the Brenner Pass to Trento , Italy. After initial military successes, much of the Italian clergy and some noble families swore allegiance to Henry II, including Archbishop Arnulf II . Joining Henry II in Bergamo , Arnulf II crowned him as King of Italy ("Rex Italiae") on 14 May 1004 in Pavia , in
5434-598: The Principality of Capua . A third army, smaller still, under the command of Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia went through the Apennines to join Henry II in besieging the Byzantine fortress of Troia . Though Patriarch Pilgrim captured Pandulf IV of Capua and extracted oaths of allegiance from both Capua and the Principality of Salerno , all three of Henry II's armies failed to take Troia. The Byzantine troops could not be forced into
5577-720: The funeral procession moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, Henry met the procession in Polling , just north of the Alps. To legitimise his claims, Henry demanded Archbishop Heribert of Cologne give him the Imperial Regalia , chief among them being the Holy Lance . Heribert, however, had sent these ahead of the procession, possibly out of distrust of Henry and possibly because he favoured
5720-794: The pagan Slavic Lutici tribe. As a consequence of their military alliance, Henry II halted Christianization efforts among the Slavic peoples. The new alliance with the Western Slavs against Poland was controversial, however. Many German nobles had hoped for continued missionary work and the direct submission of the Elbe Slavs . In addition, many German nobles opposed the war because they had developed family ties with Poland during Otto III's reign. It interfered with Bishop Bruno of Querfurt 's mission to Poland, so he set out for Hungary. In preparation for Henry II's coming military invasion, Bolesław I developed
5863-538: The Abbey grew; in 1153 Frederick Barbarossa confirmed by two charters various rights and possessions. The fame of Bobbio reached the shores of Ireland, and Columbanus' reputation attracted many more Irish religious. Bobolen's successor may have been a certain 'Comgall'. Bishop Cumianus , who had resigned his see in Ireland to become a monk of Bobbio, died in the abbey in about 736, as his poetic inscription there attests. In 1014,
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6006-448: The Abbey includes findings and remains from Roman (tombs, altars, sculptures) and Lombard ages (capitals, tombstones). It houses also a polyptych by Bernardino Luini and the Bobbio collection, the second largest in the world, of Monza ampullae , pilgrimage flasks from the 6th century. The cloisters of the abbey house a display of Collezione Mazzolini. The collection of nearly 900 works was donated in 2005 by Domenica Rosa Mazzolini to
6149-522: The Alps into Germany to discusses the state of affairs in southern Italy with the Emperor. Meeting Henry II in Bamberg , the Pope was accompanied by a large number of Italian secular and ecclesiastical leaders, including Melus. Henry II granted Melus the empty title Duke of Apulia for his actions against the Byzantines. But Melus died just a few days later, on 23 April 1020. After settling some controversies with
6292-434: The Alps three times during his twenty-two year reign. He was absent from the Italian peninsula for over a decade between his expulsion of Margrave Arduin of Ivrea in 1004 and his return in 1014 to claim the imperial title, allowing the kingdom to mostly govern itself. Henry II's absence from Italy was primarily due to his continued conflict with Bolesław I Chrobry of Poland. During the reign of Otto III, Bolesław I had been
6435-470: The Byzantine advance, Otto II suddenly died while in Rome, with his infant son Otto III succeeding him. With an infant as ruler and a political crisis to address, the Western Empire was unable to challenge Byzantine dominance. This allowed Basil II to build of his defense forces in preparation for a future Western counterattack. In 1017, aided by Norman mercenaries , the Lombard noble Melus of Bari led
6578-525: The Byzantines as a loyal lieutenant of Otto II. By 978, Pandulf had incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities – Benevento, Capua, and Salerno – into the Holy Roman Empire. Pandulf's death in 981, however, weakened Western dominance over the Byzantine Empire in southern Italy. By 982, the entire area once ruled by Pandulf had collapsed. The Byzantines still claimed sovereignty over
6721-756: The Chair of Peter, and although Rome is great and renowned, through that Chair alone is she looked on as great and illustrious among us ... On account of the two Apostles of Christ, you are almost celestial, and Rome is the head of the whole world, and of the Churches. Later, he reveals charges against the Papacy so as to encourage Boniface to make concessions: For, as I hear, you are alleged to favour heretics—God forbid men should believe that this has been, is, or shall be true. For they say that Eutyches, Nestorius, and Dioscorus, old heretics as we know, were favoured at some Council, at
6864-429: The Church and promoted monastic reform. For his remarkable personal piety and enthusiastic promotion of the Church, he was canonized by Pope Eugene III in 1146. He is the only medieval German monarch ever to have been honoured as a saint . Henry II's wife was the equally pious Empress Cunigunde , who was canonized in 1200 by Pope Innocent III . As the union produced no children, the German nobles elected Conrad II ,
7007-597: The Emperor soon agreed to release Mieszko II. At the same time, Henry II entertained Yaroslav , the pretender to the throne of the Kievan Rus' . A son of Kievan Grand Duke Vladimir the Great , he was vice-regent of the Principality of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015. Yaroslav's eldest surviving brother, Sviatopolk I of Kiev , killed three of his other brothers and seized power in Kiev. Henry II's support of Yaroslav
7150-538: The Emperor's death. Accompanied by Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan , Arduin won the support of the Italian territorial magnates. Arduin, however, had been excommunicated in 997 for the murder of the Bishop of Vercelli . This allowed Arduin's enemies in the Church, led by Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna , to side with the German King Henry II as the rightful ruler of Italy. Henry II sent Duke Otto I of Carinthia , over
7293-468: The Father up to death for us". One manifestation of this obedience was constant hard labour designed to subdue the flesh, exercise the will in daily self-denial, and set an example of industry in cultivation of the soil. The least deviation from the Rule entailed corporal punishment, or a severe form of fasting. In the second chapter, Columbanus instructs that the rule of silence be "carefully observed", since it
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#17328525389887436-622: The German crown. Upon assuming the throne, however, Henry II refused to honour his promise and instead supported the rights of the Bavarians to elect their own duke. With Henry II's support, Count Henry I of Luxembourg became the Duke of Bavaria as Henry V. Betrayed by the King, Margrave Henry allied with Bolesław I of Poland against him. However, his rebellion was soon quashed and the Nordgauian Margrave
7579-450: The Imperial army crossed the Oder river and marched across Poland, Henry II's forces killed or captured several thousand Poles, including women and children. But the Imperial army suffered heavy losses throughout the campaign. Bolesław I sent a detachment of Moravian knights under the command of Mieszko II in a diversionary attack against the Empire's Eastern March . The Imperial army retreated from Poland to Merseburg in order to address
7722-448: The Kingdom to govern itself. Henry returned to Germany to take military action against the rebellious Bolesław I of Poland. The untimely death of Emperor Otto III at age 21 in 1002 upset the young Emperor's ambitious renovatio plans, which were never fully implemented. Henry II reversed Otto III's eastern policies, damaging the excellent relationship Germany and Bolesław I of Poland had enjoyed during Otto III's reign. Bolesław I had been
7865-478: The Lombard principalities, and the lack of single leader to prevent their advances into Lombard territory allowed the Byzantines to make inroads further north. While in Byzantine territory, Otto II encountered a large Muslim army brought into the region by Abu al-Qasim , Emir of Sicily , and was soundly defeated in the ensuing battle of Stilo on 14 July 982. The defeat shifted the balance of power in southern Italy into Byzantine favor. While preparing to counterattack
8008-441: The Lombard seizure, had been property of the papacy. Columbanus particularly wanted this secluded place, for while enthusiastic for the conversion of the Lombards, he preferred eremitic solitude for his monks and himself. Next to this little church, dedicated to Saint Peter , a monastery was soon built. The abbey at its foundation followed the Rule of St Columbanus, based on the monastic practices of Celtic Christianity . Columbanus
8151-403: The Ottonian emperors so much trouble, dissolved. The peace agreement of 1013 between Henry II and Bolesław I of Poland quickly deteriorated. In 1014, with Henry II absent from Germany, Bolesław I sent his son Mieszko II Lambert to the Duchy of Bohemia in order to persuade the new Bohemian Duke Oldřich into an alliance against Henry II. The mission failed and Oldřich imprisoned Mieszko II. He
8294-482: The Poles, thus effectively incorporating the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire . Unlike his predecessor Otto III, who had imposed plans on sovereign administration and active political involvement in Italy , Henry spent most of his reign concerned with the renovation of the imperial territories north of the Alps , a policy summed up on his seal as Renovatio regni Francorum , which replaced Otto's Renovatio imperii Romanorum . A series of conflicts with
8437-537: The Polish Duke Bolesław I , who had already conquered a number of countries surrounding him, required Henry II's full attention and years of political and military maneuvering. Henry did, however, lead three expeditions into Italy to enforce his feudal claim ( Honor Imperii ): twice to suppress secessionist revolts and once to address Byzantine attempts to obtain dominance over southern Italy . On 14 February 1014, Pope Benedict VIII crowned Henry Holy Roman Emperor in Rome. The rule of Henry II has been characterized as
8580-409: The Polish army and suffered significant losses. Meeting in Poznań, Henry II and Bolesław I signed a peace treaty . According to its terms, Bolesław I lost Lusatia and Meissen and was forced to give up his claim to the Bohemian throne. The peace lasted only two years as neither party recognized the claims of the other. In 1007, Henry II denounced the Peace of Poznań, resulting in Bolesław I's attack on
8723-455: The Rule of Saint Benedict. For several centuries in some of the greater monasteries the two rules were observed conjointly. Columbanus did not lead a perfect life. According to Jonas and other sources, he could be impetuous and even headstrong, for by nature he was eager, passionate, and dauntless. These qualities were both the source of his power and the cause of his mistakes. His virtues, however, were quite remarkable. Like many saints, he had
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#17328525389888866-415: The Rule, there are three components to mortification: "not to disagree in mind, not to speak as one pleases with the tongue, not to go anywhere with complete freedom". This mirrors the words of Jesus, "For I have come down from heaven not to do my will but to do the will of him who sent me." (John 6:38) In the tenth and final chapter, Columbanus regulates forms of penance (often corporal) for offences, and it
9009-461: The Saxon Margrave Eckard I of Meissen. Henry II's involvement in Italian politics and his coronation as emperor inevitably brought him into conflict with the Byzantine Empire . In 969, Emperor Otto I entered into an alliance with Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes in which both Eastern and Western Empires would jointly-govern southern Italy . Otto I's death in 973 and John I's death in 976 caused this alliance to deteriorate. Otto I's successor in
9152-411: The West, his son Emperor Otto II, and John I's successor in the East, his nephew Basil II , brought the two empires once again into conflict over control of southern Italy. Under Otto I and Otto II, the Lombard leader Pandulf Ironhead expanded Western imperial control over central and southern Italy. Originally appointed by Otto I as Prince of Benevento and Capua in 961, Pandulf waged war against
9295-460: The abbey was suppressed. The current Basilica of San Colombano was built during 1456–1530 in a Renaissance style. The Basilica has a Latin cross layout with a nave and two aisles, a transept and a rectangular apse. It includes a 9th-century baptismal font. The nave fresco decoration was completed in the 16th century by Bernardino Lanzani . The 15th-century crypt houses the sarcophagus of St. Columbanus, by Giovanni dei Patriarchi (1480), and those of
9438-404: The abbey's library may have been formed by the manuscripts which Columbanus had brought from Ireland (though these must have been exceedingly few) and the treatises which he wrote himself. The learned Saint Dungal (d. after 827) bequeathed to the abbey his valuable library, consisting of some 27 volumes. A late 9th-century catalogue, published by Lodovico Antonio Muratori (but now superseded by
9581-407: The abbey. Columbanus arrived in Milan in 612 and was welcomed by King Agilulf and Queen Theodelinda of the Lombards . He immediately began refuting the teachings of Arianism , which had enjoyed a degree of acceptance in Italy. He wrote a treatise against Arianism, which has since been lost. In 614, Agilulf granted Columbanus land for a school at the site of a ruined church at Bobbio . At
9724-569: The aid of the numerous ancient treatises he found there, composed his celebrated work on geometry. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Walsh, Reginald (1907). " Abbey and Diocese of Bobbio ". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia . Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 44°46′00″N 9°23′13″E / 44.7667°N 9.3870°E / 44.7667; 9.3870 Columbanus Saint Columbanus ( Irish : Columbán ; 543 – 23 November 615)
9867-451: The assault without making any permanent territorial gains east of the Oder River. During the retreat to Germany, Gero II , margrave of the Eastern March, was ambushed by Polish forces and killed late in 1015. Following the attack on the Eastern March, Bolesław I's forces took the offensive. Bolesław I sent Mieszko II to besiege Meissen in 1017, then under the command of Mieszko II's brother-in-law Margrave Herman I . His attempt at conquering
10010-410: The beginning of the conflict in 1004, the Imperial army simultaneously marched in a pincer movement from the German north, south, and center. Henry II himself commanded the center army, supported by allied Slavic tribes, and moved from Magdeburg to cross the Oder river into Poland. Henry II was soon joined from the south by Bohemian Duke Oldřich and from the north by Duke Bernard II of Saxony . As
10153-400: The bishops of Mainz and Würzburg , the Pope convinced Henry II to return to Italy for a third campaign to counter the growing power of the Byzantine Empire. In 1022, Henry II set out down the Adriatic coast for southern Italy commanding a large force. He sent Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne ahead with a slightly smaller army along the Tyrrhenian littoral with the objective of subjugating
10296-552: The buildings remain in other uses. The abbey was founded soon after the Lombard invasion of Italy in 568. The Lombard king Agilulf married the devout Roman Catholic Theodelinda in 590, and under the influence of the Irish missionary Columbanus and his wife, Agilulf converted to Christianity. Upon the conversion of Agigulf and his Lombard followers, the king granted Columbanus a ruined church and wasted lands known as Ebovium, which prior to
10439-648: The carelessness of the bishops, the Christian faith had almost departed from that country. The creed alone remained. But the saving grace of penance and the longing to root out the lusts of the flesh were to be found only in a few. Everywhere that he went the noble man [Columbanus] preached the Gospel. And it pleased the people because his teaching was adorned by eloquence and enforced by examples of virtue. Columbanus and his companions were welcomed by King Guntram of Burgundy , who granted them land at Anegray , where they converted
10582-401: The castle at Žatec and wiped out the Polish army left there. At the same time, Jaromir (the younger brother of the deposed Bohemian Duke Boleslaus III) invaded Bohemia with German military support. At Merseburg, Jaromír promised to hold Bohemia as a vassal under Henry II, definitively incorporating Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire . Forcing Bolesław I to flee, Jaromír occupied Prague with
10725-460: The castle in Meissen in an act of war. Returning from Italy after reclaiming the Italian throne, Henry II launched a military campaign against Poland in 1004 that would last until 1018, spanning three wars and several smaller campaigns. Returning from his first expedition to Italy, in 1004 Henry II gathered an army to march against Poland. The previous year in 1003, Henry II had formed an alliance with
10868-424: The city failed, however, and he was forced to retreat back to Poland. Henry II and Bolesław I then opened peace negotiations and a ceasefire was declared in summer 1017. As negotiations failed by autumn 1017, Henry II again marched his army into Poland. His army reached Głogów , where Bolesław I was entrenched, but it was unable to take the city. Henry II then besieged Niemcza , but was likewise unable to capture
11011-531: The city of Lubusz . In 1013, a third peace treaty was signed at Merseburg, requiring in part that Bolesław I recognize Henry II as his overlord in exchange for receiving the March of Lusatia and the March of Meissen as fiefs . To seal their peace, Bolesław I's son Mieszko II married Richeza of Lotharingia , daughter of the Count Palatine Ezzo of Lotharingia , granddaughter of Emperor Otto II . John XVIII reigned as pope from 1003 until 1009. He
11154-462: The city swiftly moved to protect the king, and in the onslaught the city caught fire and many residents were killed. After receiving the homage of the remaining Italian nobles, Henry returned to Germany in the early summer of 1004 without first traveling to Rome to claim the Imperial crown. This is most likely due to opposition from Pope John XVIII . Henry would not return to Italy for a decade, leaving
11297-530: The city. As his army besieged Niemcza, disease brought about from the winter cold devastated the Imperial forces. His attacks unsuccessful, Henry II was forced to retreat back to Merseburg in Germany. With this defeat, Henry II was ready to end the war and begin serious peace negotiations with Bolesław I. On 30 January 1018, Henry II and Bolesław I signed a fourth peace treaty, known as the Peace of Bautzen . The Polish duke
11440-409: The clergy, and ordering the restitution of Church property. Shortly afterwards, the Emperor moved north again where he established the Diocese of Bobbio . Celebrating Easter in Pavia and Italy, Henry then returned to Germany in mid-May 1014. He left the rule of Rome to the Pope and thereafter rarely intervened in the politics of Italy or the Papal States . In 1015 the conflict with Arduin came to
11583-525: The continent. Columbanus set sail with twelve companions: Attala , Columbanus the Younger, Gallus , Domgal , Cummain, Eogain, Eunan, Gurgano, Libran, Lua, Sigisbert and Waldoleno. They crossed the channel via Cornwall and landed in Saint-Malo , Brittany. Columbanus then entered Burgundian France. Jonas writes that: At that time, either because of the numerous enemies from without, or on account of
11726-495: The conversions he effected and to the rule that he composed. It may be that the example and success of Columba in Caledonia inspired him to similar exertions. The life of Columbanus stands as the prototype of missionary activity in Europe, followed by such men as Kilian , Vergilius of Salzburg , Donatus of Fiesole , Wilfrid , Willibrord , Suitbert of Kaiserwerdt , Boniface , and Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne . The following are
11869-651: The court of King Theudebert II of Austrasia . Columbanus arrived at Theudebert II's court in Metz in 611, where members of the Luxeuil school met him and Theudebert II granted them land at Bregenz . They travelled up the Rhine via Mainz to the lands of the Suebi and Alemanni in the northern Alps, intending to preach the Gospel to these people. He followed the Rhine river and its tributaries,
12012-458: The date of Easter. In defence of his following his traditional paschal cycle, he wrote: I am not the author of this divergence. I came as a poor stranger into these parts for the cause of Christ, Our Saviour. One thing alone I ask of you, holy Fathers, permit me to live in silence in these forests, near the bones of seventeen of my brethren now dead. When the bishops refused to abandon the matter, Columbanus appealed directly to Pope Gregory I . In
12155-485: The devil's agency to exist by the corruption of good, but through God's agency Who first illumines and then divides. Thus righteous Abel chose the good, but unrighteous Cain fell upon evil. In the ninth chapter, Columbanus presents mortification as an essential element in the lives of monks, who are instructed, "Do nothing without counsel." Monks are warned to "beware of a proud independence, and learn true lowliness as they obey without murmuring and hesitation". According to
12298-440: The diocese of Piacenza-Bobbio Part of the collection was amassed earlier by the sister of the physician Giovanni Battista Ettore Simonetti. The collection includes works by Enrico Baj , Renato Birolli , Carlo Carrà , Massimo Campigli , Giuseppe Capogrossi , Giorgio De Chirico , Filippo De Pisis , Ottone Rosai , Lucio Fontana , Achille Funi , Piero Manzoni , Mario Nigro , Giò Pomodoro , and Mario Sironi . The nucleus of
12441-511: The edition of M. Tosi), shows that at that period every branch of knowledge, divine and human, was represented in this library. The catalogue lists more than 600 volumes. Many of the books have been lost, the rest have long since been dispersed and are still reckoned among the chief treasures of the later collections which possess them. In 1616 Cardinal Federico Borromeo took for the Ambrosian Library of Milan eighty-six volumes, including
12584-484: The elder Henry in Ingelheim . After escaping, Henry again revolted against Otto II . When this second revolt failed, Otto II deposed Henry as Duke of Bavaria and sent him into exile under the custody of the Bishop of Utrecht in April 978. As a consequence of his revolt, the Emperor stripped the Duchy of Bavaria of its southeastern territories bordering Italy and formed the Duchy of Carinthia . During his father's exile,
12727-435: The elder Henry to be released from custody and to return from exile. The elder Henry claimed regency over Otto III , the three-year-old child of Otto II. After a failed attempt to claim the German throne for himself in 985, the elder Henry relinquished the regency to the child's mother Theophanu . In return for his submission to the child king, Henry was restored as Duke of Bavaria . The younger Henry, now thirteen years old,
12870-433: The end of 1013, Henry II gathered his army at Augsburg to march into Italy. Earlier in 1013, Henry signed a peace treaty with Duke Bolesław of Poland at Merseburg . The peace with Poland gave Henry opportunity to address affairs in Italy. On the march across the Alps, Henry was accompanied by his wife, Queen Cunigunde , and a number of clerics. Upon reaching Pavia other bishops and abbots joined him. Henry's forces trapped
13013-459: The evenings. The habit of the monks consisted of a tunic of undyed wool, over which was worn the cuculla , or cowl, of the same material. A great deal of time was devoted to various kinds of manual labour , not unlike the life in monasteries of other rules. The Rule of Saint Columbanus was approved of by the Fourth Council of Mâcon in 627, but it was superseded at the close of the century by
13156-776: The famous " Bobbio Orosius ", the " Antiphonary of Bangor ", and the Bobbio Jerome , a palimpsest of Ulfilas ' Gothic version of the Bible. Twenty-six volumes were given, in 1618, to Pope Paul V for the Vatican Library . Many others were sent to Turin, where, besides those in the Royal Archives, there were seventy-one in the University Library until the disastrous fire of 26 January 1904. Gerbert of Aurillac (afterwards Pope Sylvester II ) became abbot of Bobbio in 982, and with
13299-465: The fifth, by Vigilius. Here, as they say, is the cause of the whole calumny; if, as is reported, you also favour thus, or if you know that even (Pope) Vigilius himself died under such a taint, why do you repeat his name against your conscience? Already it is your fault if you have erred from the true belief and made your first faith void; justly do your subordinates oppose you, and justly do they hold no communion with you. Columbanus' deference towards Rome
13442-567: The first half of the sixth century, the councils of Gaul had given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities. Celtic Christians, Columbanus and his monks used the Irish Easter calculation, a version of Bishop Augustalis 's 84-year computus for determining the date of Easter ( quartodecimanism ), whereas the Franks had adopted the Victorian cycle of 532 years. The bishops objected to
13585-558: The first two abbots, St. Attala and St. Bertulf. Also in the crypt is a 12th-century pavement mosaic with the histories of the Maccabeans and the Cycle of the Months. No structures of the earliest monastery buildings are visible. The bell-tower (late 9th century) and the smaller apse are from the original Romanesque edifice. The Torre del Comune (Communal Tower) was built in 1456–85. The Museum of
13728-556: The following year, after which, although recognizing the minor Hermann III as his father's titular successor, Henry II effectively assumed all power over the Duchy himself. In 1003 Henry of Schweinfurt , Margrave of Nordgau in Bavaria , revolted against Henry II's rule. Henry II had promised to install the Margrave as his successor to the Duchy of Bavaria in exchange for supporting his claim to
13871-552: The forgetfulness of earthly things. Since this is so, we have need of few things, according to the word of the Lord, or even of one." In the fifth chapter, Columbanus warns against vanity, reminding the monks of Jesus' warning in Luke 16:15: "You are the ones who justify yourselves in the eyes of others, but God knows your hearts. What people value highly is detestable in God's sight." In the sixth chapter, Columbanus instructs that "a monk's chastity
14014-468: The great-grandson of King Rudolf II of Burgundy . The elder Henry came into conflict with his cousin Holy Roman Emperor Otto II , in 974. The elder Henry and Otto II disputed each other's claims to authority over the Duchy of Swabia : Henry claimed the duchy as his birthright while Otto II maintained his right to name a duke of his choosing. After an initial failed revolt, Otto II imprisoned
14157-609: The imperial estates in Kaufungen . Henry II vowed to found a monastery on the site if she recovered. Upon her recovery in 1018, Henry ordered the construction of the Kaufungen Abbey . After Henry II's death in 1024, Cunigunde retreated to the Abbey, where she remained until her own death in 1040. Sincerely religious, Henry II supported service to the Church (he was celibate ) and promoted various monastic reforms. He also strongly enforced clerical celibacy , perhaps partly in order that
14300-498: The inhabitants, and many were converted. The three brass images were destroyed, and Columbanus blessed the little church, placing the relics of Aurelia beneath the altar. A monastery was erected, Mehrerau Abbey , and the brethren observed their regular life. Columbanus stayed in Bregenz for about one year. In the spring of 612, war broke out between Austrasia and Burgundy and Theudebert II was resoundingly beaten by Theuderic II. Austrasia
14443-454: The instruction of the Lombards he preferred solitude for his monks and himself. Next to the little church, which was dedicated to Peter the Apostle , Columbanus erected a monastery in 614. Bobbio Abbey at its foundation followed the Rule of Saint Columbanus, based on the monastic practices of Celtic Christianity . For centuries it remained the stronghold of orthodoxy in northern Italy. During
14586-562: The king's request, Columbanus wrote a letter to Pope Boniface IV on the controversy over the Three Chapters – writings by Syrian bishops suspected of Nestorianism , which had been condemned in the fifth century as heresy . Pope Gregory I had tolerated in Lombardy those persons who defended the Three Letters , among them King Agilulf. Columbanus agreed to take up the issue on behalf of
14729-411: The king. The letter has a diplomatic tone and begins with an apology that a "foolish Scot" ( Scottus , Irishman) would be writing for a Lombard king. After acquainting the pope with the imputations brought against him, he entreats the pontiff to prove his orthodoxy and assemble a council. When critiquing Boniface, he writes that his freedom of speech is consistent with the custom of his country. Some of
14872-415: The language used in the letter might now be regarded as disrespectful, but in that time, faith and austerity could be more indulgent. Columbanus was tactful when making critiques, as he begins the letter expresses with the most affectionate and impassioned devotion to the Holy See. We Irish, though dwelling at the far ends of the earth, are all disciples of Saint Peter and Saint Paul ... we are bound to
15015-528: The last year of his life, Columbanus received messenges from King Chlothar II , inviting him to return to Burgundy, now that his enemies were dead. Columbanus did not return, but requested that the king should always protect his monks at Luxeuil Abbey . He prepared for death by retiring to his cave on the mountainside overlooking the Trebbia river, where, according to a tradition, he had dedicated an oratory to Our Lady. Columbanus died at Bobbio on 21 November 615 and
15158-453: The new German king. Bolesław I had taken advantage of Germany's internal strife following Otto III's death, occupying important German territories west of the Oder River : the March of Meissen and the March of Lusatia . Bolesław I took control of these territories following the assassination of Margrave Eckard I. Henry II accepted Bolesław I's gains, allowing the Polish Duke to keep Lusatia as
15301-510: The newcomers' continued observance of their own dating, which – among other issues – caused the end of Lent to differ. They also complained about the distinct Irish tonsure . In 602, the bishops assembled to judge Columbanus, but he did not appear before them as requested. Instead, he sent a letter to the prelates – a strange mixture of freedom, reverence, and charity – admonishing them to hold synods more frequently, and advising them to pay more attention to matters of equal importance to that of
15444-531: The phalanxes of birds to depart. We learned this from Eustasius, who was present with the others, under the command of the servant of God. He said that no one of them remembered ever having seen birds of such a kind before; and the food was of so pleasant savor that it surpassed royal viands. Oh, wonderful gift of divine mercy! Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II ( German : Heinrich II ; Italian : Enrico II ; Latin : Henricus ; 6 May 973 – 13 July 1024 AD), also known as Saint Henry , Obl. S. B. ,
15587-418: The popes again, but in 756 Aistulf was compelled by Pepin the Younger to give up the lands. In 774 Charlemagne made liberal grants to the abbey. In the last decades of the 9th century, Abbot Agilulph moved the monastery complex farther downstream on the left bank of the river Trebbia . The medieval village started to grow around the large monastery area. Over time, the cultural and political importance of
15730-435: The principal miracles attributed to his intercession: Jonas relates the occurrence of a miracle during Columbanus' time in Bregenz, when that region was experiencing a period of severe famine. Although they were without food, they were bold and unterrified in their faith, so that they obtained food from the Lord. After their bodies had been exhausted by three days of fasting, they found so great an abundance of birds, just as
15873-428: The public land and offices he granted to clerics would not be devised to heirs. He encouraged the reform of the Church, fostered missionary activity, and made several charitable foundations for the poor. Henry II wished to become a monk, and in virtue of his imperial power he ordered the Abbot of Verdun to accept him in his monastery. Thereupon, the Abbot ordered him, in virtue of the vows he had professed, to continue
16016-455: The quails formerly covered the camp of the children of Israel, that the whole country near there was filled with birds. The man of God knew that this food had been scattered on the ground for his own safety and that of his brethren, and that the birds had come only because he was there. He ordered his followers first to render grateful praises to the Creator, and then to take the birds as food. And it
16159-483: The sins. Columbanus is one of the earliest identifiable Hiberno-Latin writers. Most of what we know about Columbanus is based on Columbanus' own works (as far as they have been preserved) and Jonas of Susa 's Vita Columbani ( Life of Columbanus ), which was written between 639 and 641. Jonas entered Bobbio after Columbanus' death but relied on reports of monks who still knew Columbanus. A description of miracles of Columbanus written by an anonymous monk of Bobbio
16302-671: The succession of his relative Duke Herman II of Swabia as the next king. In order to force Herman II to relinquish the Holy Lance to him, Henry imprisoned the Archbishop and his brother the Bishop of Würzburg . With neither the symbols of imperial authority, the crown jewels, nor the cooperation of Heribert, Henry was unable to convince the nobles attending Otto III's funeral procession to elect him as king. A few weeks later, at Otto III's funeral in Aachen Cathedral , Henry again attempted to gain
16445-509: The support of the Saxons, Henry arranged for Archbishop Willigis to crown his wife, Cunigunde of Luxembourg as Queen of Germany on 10 August 1002 in Paderborn , in present-day Germany. Henry II spent the next several years consolidating his political power within his borders. Herman II, Duke of Swabia , in particular fiercely contested Henry II's right to the throne. The Swabian Duke believed he
16588-433: The support of the kingdom's nobles and was again rejected. So it was without the support of the kingdom's nobility that Henry took the radical action of having himself anointed and crowned King of Germany ("Rex Romanorum") by Willigis , Archbishop of Mainz on 9 July 1002 at Mainz , in present-day Germany. Henry's action marked the first time a German king was not crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Emperor Otto I began
16731-509: The third and only surviving letter, he asks "the holy Pope, his Father" to provide "the strong support of his authority" and to render a "verdict of his favour", apologising for "presuming to argue as it were, with him who sits in the chair of Peter, Apostle and Bearer of the Keys". None of the letters were answered, most likely due to the pope's death in 604. Columbanus then sent a letter to Gregory's successor, Pope Boniface IV , asking him to confirm
16874-402: The tomb of Martin of Tours , and sent a message to Theuderic II indicating that within three years he and his children would perish. When he arrived at Nantes , he wrote a letter before embarkation to his fellow monks at Luxeuil monastery. The letter urged his brethren to obey Attala , who stayed behind as abbot of the monastic community. The letter concludes: They come to tell me the ship
17017-506: The tradition in 936 and the first time a German king assumed the throne without election by the German nobility. Under the regal name of "King Henry II", he appeared before the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel. There, Henry convinced Bernard I, Duke of Saxony , to support his claims to the throne. In return for his support, Henry guaranteed Bernard's right to rule the Saxons and to represent their interests before him. Shortly after gaining
17160-549: The tradition of his elders – if it was not contrary to the Faith – so that he and his monks could follow the rites of their ancestors. Before Boniface responded, Columbanus moved outside the jurisdiction of the Frankish bishops. As the Easter issue appears to end around that time, Columbanus may have stopped celebrating Irish date of Easter after moving to Italy. Columbanus was also involved in
17303-454: The turbulent 7th century and through the efforts of Columbanus's disciples, increasing numbers of Arian Lombards were received into the Catholic form of Christianity. However, during the first half of the 7th century, the large tract of country lying between Turin and Verona , Genoa and Milan , remained a relatively lawless state, with a mix of Arian and pagan religious practice. Bobbio became
17446-595: The various duchies of his kingdom – Saxony , Bavaria , Swabia , Upper Lorraine , Lower Lorraine , Franconia . This was done in order to obtain the general consent of his subjects as opposed to traditional election. Henry II's familial ties to the Ottonian dynasty eventually caused the kingdom's nobles to accept him as king. After being defeated at a battle near Strasburg , Herman II submitted to Henry II's authority on 1 October 1002. In exchange for this surrender, Henry II allowed Herman II to remain Duke of Swabia until his death
17589-416: The virtue of poverty and of overcoming greed, and that monks should be satisfied with "small possessions of utter need, knowing that greed is a leprosy for monks". Columbanus also instructs that "nakedness and disdain of riches are the first perfection of monks, but the second is the purging of vices, the third the most perfect and perpetual love of God and unceasing affection for things divine, which follows on
17732-526: The younger Henry lived in Hildesheim . As a child he was educated in the Christian faith by Bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg , and then studied at the Hildesheim Cathedral . The Emperor himself ensured the younger Henry received an ecclesiastical education in order that by becoming a religious official he would be prevented from participating in the Imperial government. The death of Otto II in 983 allowed
17875-555: Was Holy Roman Emperor ("Romanorum Imperator") from 1014. He died without an heir in 1024, and was the last ruler of the Ottonian line . As Duke of Bavaria , appointed in 995, Henry became King of the Romans ("Rex Romanorum") following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was made King of Italy ("Rex Italiae") in 1004, and crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1014. The son of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria , and his wife Gisela of Burgundy , Emperor Henry II
18018-515: Was Otto III's true successor, as he had married a daughter of Liudof , eldest son of Emperor Otto I . Armed conflicts between Henry II and Herman II broke out but proved to be inconclusive. This forced the two men to fight each other politically for the support of the Swabian nobles. Unable to decisively defeat Herman in Swabia, Henry II attempted to legitimize his seizing the throne by traveling throughout
18161-707: Was a great-grandson of German king Henry the Fowler and a member of the Bavarian branch of the Ottonian dynasty . Since his father had rebelled against two previous emperors, the younger Henry spent long periods of time in exile, where he turned to Christianity at an early age, first finding refuge with the Bishop of Freising and later during his education at the cathedral school in Hildesheim. He succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995 as "Henry IV". As duke, he attempted to join his second-cousin, Emperor Otto III, in suppressing
18304-477: Was a wonderful and stupendous miracle; for the birds were seized according to the father's commands and did not attempt to fly away. The manna of birds remained for three days. On the fourth day, a priest from an adjacent city, warned by divine inspiration, sent a supply of grain to Saint Columban. When the supply of grain arrived, the Omnipotent, who had furnished the winged food to those in want, immediately commanded
18447-506: Was able to keep the contested marches of Lusatia and Meissen on purely nominal terms of vassalage , with Bolesław I recognizing Henry II as his feudal lord. Henry II also promised to support Bolesław I in the Polish ruler's expedition to Kiev to ensure his son-in-law, Sviatopolk, claimed the Kievan throne. To seal the peace, Bolesław I, then a widower, reinforced his dynastic bonds with the German nobility by marrying Oda of Meissen , daughter of
18590-474: Was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries after 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil Abbey in present-day France and Bobbio Abbey in present-day Italy. Columbanus taught an Irish monastic rule and penitential practices for those repenting of sins, which emphasised private confession to a priest, followed by penances imposed by the priest in reparation for
18733-448: Was buried on 23 November 615, but was followed by successors of high calibre in Attala (d. 627) and Bertulf (d. 640), who steered the new monastery through the threats from militant Arianism under King Rotharis (636–652). In 628, when Bertulf made a pilgrimage to Rome, he persuaded Pope Honorius I to exempt Bobbio from episcopal jurisdiction, thus making the abbey immediately subject to
18876-466: Was captured, blinded, and imprisoned, where he would remain until his death some thirty years later. Claiming dominion over Bohemia for himself, Bolesław I invaded Bohemia in 1003 and conquered the duchy without any serious opposition. Bohemia had previously been under the influence and protection of Germany, with the Polish invasion further increasing tension between Germany and Poland. Bolesław I openly rebelled against Henry II's rule in 1004, burning down
19019-551: Was deposed in 1004. Henry II then abolished the March of Nordgau, established the Diocese of Bamberg in 1007, and transferred secular authority over the March's former territory to the Diocese in order to prevent further uprisings. The death of Otto III in 1002 and the resulting political turmoil over his successor allowed Italy to fall from German control. Margrave Arduin of Ivrea proclaimed himself King of Italy at Pavia soon after
19162-472: Was elected to succeed him. Upon assuming the chair of St. Peter , however, Benedict VIII was forced to flee Rome by Gregory VI , an antipope , whom John Crescentius installed as the new head of the Catholic Church. Fleeing across the Alps to Germany, Benedict VIII appealed to Henry II for protection. Henry II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal throne in return for his coronation as emperor. Near
19305-698: Was first educated under Abbot Sinell of Cluaninis , whose monastery was on an island of the River Erne , in modern County Fermanagh . Under Sinell's instruction, Columbanus composed a commentary on the Psalms . Columbanus then moved to Bangor Abbey where he studied to become a teacher of the Bible. He was well-educated in the areas of grammar, rhetoric, geometry, and the Holy Scriptures. Abbot Comgall taught him Greek and Latin. He stayed at Bangor until c. 590, when Comgall reluctantly gave him permission to travel to
19448-466: Was imprisoned at Besançon for execution . Columbanus escaped and returned to Luxeuil. When the king and his grandmother found out, they sent soldiers to drive him back to Ireland by force, separating him from his monks by insisting that only those from Ireland could accompany him into exile. Columbanus was taken to Nevers , then travelled by boat down the Loire river to the coast. At Tours he visited
19591-412: Was in direct opposition to not only Sviatopolk but to Bolesław I as well. Years before, Bolesław I had married one of his daughters to Sviatopolk, making the new Kievan Grand Duke a son-in-law to the Polish Duke. Henry II returned to Germany in 1015 after being crowned Emperor by Pope Benedict VIII and prepared for a third invasion of Poland. With three armies at his command, the largest contingent since
19734-611: Was named his regent over Bavaria. When the elder Henry died in 995, the younger Henry was elected by the Bavarian nobles as the new duke to succeed his father. In 999 Henry married Cunigunde of Luxembourg , a daughter of Count Siegfried of Luxembourg . This marriage granted him an extensive network of contacts in Germany's western territories. In 1001, Emperor Otto III experienced a revolt against his reign in Italy. The Emperor sent word for Henry II to join him with reinforcements from Germany, but then died unexpectedly in January 1002. Otto
19877-490: Was only 21 at the time of his death and had left no children and no instructions for the Imperial succession. In the Ottonian dynasty , succession to the throne had belonged to the Saxon branch, not the Bavarian line of which Henry was a member. Rival candidates for the throne, including Count Ezzo of Lotharingia , Margrave Eckard I of Meissen , and Duke Herman II of Swabia , strongly contested Henry's right to succeed Otto III. As
20020-496: Was ousted in a revolt in 1002. Bolesław I intervened in the Bohemian affair and reinstalled Boleslaus III upon the Bohemian throne in 1003. Boleslaus III soon undermined his own position, however, by ordering a massacre of his leading nobles. Bohemian nobles secretly sent a messenger to Bolesław I, requesting his direct intervention in the crisis. The Polish duke willingly agreed and invited the Bohemian duke to Poland. There, Boleslaus III
20163-478: Was released only after the intervention of the Emperor, who, despite the planned invasion of Poland, loyally acted on behalf of his nominal vassal Bolesław I. As a result, Mieszko II was sent to Henry II's imperial court in Merseburg as a hostage. Henry II probably wanted to force the presence of Bolesław I in Merseburg and make him explain his actions. The plan failed, however, because, under pressure from his relatives,
20306-485: Was subsumed under the kingdom of Burgundy and Columbanus was again vulnerable to Theuderic II's opprobrium. When Columbanus' students began to be murdered in the woods, Columbanus decided to cross the Alps into Lombardy. Gallus remained in this area until his death in 646. About seventy years later at the place of Gallus' cell the Abbey of Saint Gall was founded. The city of St. Gallen originated as an adjoining settlement of
20449-515: Was succeeded by Sergius IV from 1009 to 1012. Both John XVIII and Sergius IV, though the nominal Pope, were subservient to the power John Crescentius . As leader of the Crescentii clan and Patrician of Rome , John Crescentius was the effective ruler of the city. John Crescentius' influence prevented Henry II from meeting the Pope on numerous occasions, preventing him from claiming the imperial title. Following Sergius IV's death in 1012, Benedict VIII
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