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54-474: Blockade runners are often the fastest ships available, and come lightly armed and armored. Their operations are quite risky since blockading fleets would not hesitate to fire on them. However, the potential profits (economically or militarily) from a successful blockade run are tremendous, so blockade-runners typically had excellent crews. Although having modus operandi similar to that of smugglers , blockade-runners are often operated by state's navies as part of

108-558: A carrying capacity of 700 tons (much of it outside the pressure hull ), and could travel at 12.4 knots (14.3 mph; 23.0 km/h) on the surface and 7 knots (8.1 mph; 13.0 km/h) while submerged. It had a crew of 29 men and was commanded by Paul König , a former surface merchantman captain . On its first journey to the US, departing on the 23 June 1916, Deutschland carried 163 tons of highly sought-after chemical dyes , as well as medical drugs and mail. Passing undetected through

162-506: A dozen passengers. Return trip loadings were 110-155 tons of rubber, 44-70 tons of zinc , five tons of tungsten , two tons of quinine , two tons of opium , bamboo , rattan , and passengers. Comandante Cappellini , Reginaldo Giuliani , and Enrico Tazzoli departed Bordeaux in May 1943. The first two completed their voyages in July and August, but Enrico Tazzoli was destroyed by Allied bombers in

216-602: A limited effect; as in Operation Frankton . From 1943 improved Allied air superiority over the Bay of Biscay rendered blockade running by surface ships effectively impossible. By some counts, during the war Germans sent 32 (surface) blockade runners to Japan, only 16 of them reaching their destination. Later in the war, most of the trade between Germany and Japan was by cargo submarine. Italian ships, interned in Spain after Italy entered

270-748: A major role in Confederate blockade running. British merchants had conducted significant amounts of trade with the South prior to the war, and were suffering from the Lancashire Cotton Famine . The British Empire also controlled many of the neutral ports in the Caribbean, most notably the Bahamas and Bermuda . In concert with Confederate interests, British investors ordered the construction of steamships that were longer, narrower and considerably faster than most of

324-605: A surface speed of 13 knots (15.0 mph; 24.1 km/h) and submerged speed of 6 knots (6.9 mph; 11.1 km/h). A 63-man crew would operate defensive armaments of three 20 mm guns. Romolo and Remo were laid down in July 1942 at the Tosi Yard in Taranto with launch scheduled for March 1943. Ten large submarines built for combat service were also scheduled for conversion to merchant service after their designs had been found unsuitable for use against Allied convoys . These were

378-597: Is modi operandi . The word operandi is a gerund in the genitive case , "of operating"; gerunds can never be pluralised in Latin, as opposed to gerundives . When a noun with an attribute in the genitive is pluralised, only the head noun normally changes, just as in English with "of": "a fact of life, two facts of life" (unlike, for instance, les modes opératoires in French ). Merchant submarine A merchant submarine

432-879: Is a type of submarine intended for trade , and being without armaments, it is not considered a warship like most other types of submarines. The intended use would be blockade running , or to dive under Arctic ice . Strictly speaking, only two submarines have so far been purpose-built for non-military merchant shipping use, outside of criminal enterprises, though standard or partly converted military submarines have been used to transport smaller amounts of important cargo, especially during wartime, and large-scale proposals for modern merchant submarines have been produced by manufacturers. Criminal enterprises have also built transport submarines to avoid authorities, such as narcosubs . Only two merchant submarines were built, both in Germany during World War I . They were constructed to slip through

486-415: Is an individual's habits of working, particularly in the context of business or criminal investigations, but also generally. It is a Latin phrase, approximately translated as ' mode (or manner) of operating ' . The term is often used in police work when discussing crime and addressing the methods employed by criminals . It is also used in criminal profiling , where it can help in finding clues to

540-615: The Bay of Biscay . Barbarigo was similarly destroyed during a June departure, but Luigi Torrelli reached Singapore in August. Following the Italian armistice in September, Giuseppe Finzi and Alpino Bagnolini were seized by Germany while undergoing conversion at Bordeaux, and designated UIT-21 and UIT-22 , respectively. Reginaldo Giuliani , Commandante Cappellini , and Luigi Torelli were seized by

594-652: The English Channel she arrived in Baltimore on 8 July 1916 and soon re-embarked with 348 tons of rubber , 341 tons of nickel , and 93 tons of tin , arriving back in Bremerhaven on 25 August 1916. She had traveled 8,450 nautical miles (9,724 mi; 15,649 km), though only 190 nmi (219 mi; 352 km) of these submerged. The American submarine pioneer Simon Lake had unsuccessfully negotiated to construct cargo submarines for Kaiserliche Marine prior to

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648-561: The Great Depression made this early attempt less successful than the post-war accomplishments of a nuclear-powered submarine of the same name; USS  Nautilus  (SSN-571) . In 1958, during a presidential address announcing the first journey of a submarine under the North pole by USS Nautilus , called Operation Sunshine , President Eisenhower mentioned that one day nuclear cargo submarines might use that route for trade. Similar to

702-774: The Imperial Japanese Navy ′s I-351 -class submarines and I-361 -class submarines and the Imperial Japanese Army ′s Type 3 submergence transport vehicles were constructed for transportation and supply. The Soviet Union had plans to construct cargo submarines both during World War II and in the Cold War , but these plans were never carried out. These would not strictly count as merchant submarines, as they would have been at least lightly armed and used mainly for directly war-related duties, such as supplying troops or delivering military forces to their targets. However, in

756-420: The 880-ton Archimede , the 940-ton Barbarigo , the 951-ton Comandante Cappellini , the 1,030-ton Alpino Bagnolini and Reginaldo Giuliani , the 1,036-ton Leonardo da Vinci and Luigi Torelli , the 1,331-ton Enrico Tazzoli and Giuseppe Finzi , and the 1,504-ton Ammiraglio Cagni . Conversions were to be accomplished at Bordeaux , with armament limited to defensive machine guns, while

810-525: The Arctic to North America and Europe. This was an expansion of an earlier 1974 United States Merchant Marine Academy scholar project by Patrick Moloney. Another (albeit black market ) type of "trade" usage is the known use of narco-submarines or "drug subs" by drug smugglers . In one case, a Colombian drug cartel was interrupted before finishing the construction of a professional-grade, 30 m long, 200 ton carrying-capacity submarine apparently intended for

864-755: The Atlantic. As these boats were part of Kriegsmarine (Nazi Germany's navy), did carry light armaments (anti-aircraft guns), and never engaged in trade as such, they do not qualify as merchant submarines. However, they shared the large amounts of cargo space compared to normal submarines of their day. After large Italian submarines successfully transported supplies to North Africa avoiding British Mediterranean Fleet patrols, some of these submarines had their torpedo tubes and offensive deck gun armament removed to increase cargo capacity. Five of these converted submarines were seized in Axis ports for operation by German crews after

918-626: The British armed merchant cruiser HMS  Mantua south of Iceland , as was theorized after the war. There was also the theory that she might have hit a mine off the Orkney Islands . Six further merchant submarines were in the process of being built by the Deutsche Ozean-Reederei when the US entered the war in early 1917. The construction of the merchant submarines was subsequently halted or changed into submarine cruisers, similar to

972-558: The Cold War. A submarine freight transportation system (SFTS) was suggested in 1997 by Vladimir Postnikov and is considered as a sea-going component of a global intelligent transportation system . In March 2020, Malakhit Marine Engineering Bureau in St. Petersburg, designers of attack submarines such as the Akula and Victor classes , proposed a submersible LNG tanker named Pilgrim that would be

1026-631: The Confederate states, though historians have estimated the supplies brought by blockade runners to the Confederacy lengthened the duration of the war by up to two years. By the end of the American Civil War, Union warships had captured more than 1,100 blockade runners and had destroyed or run aground another 355. Greek blockade runners supplied the Christians during the Cretan revolt (1866–1869) . Names of

1080-607: The Italian armistice in September 1943. Germany enlarged the ocean-going type IX U-boat design to an extended range type IXD1 variant with torpedo tubes removed and battery capacity reduced to increase cargo capacity for transport of strategic materials between German and Japanese ports. After the Italian submarines were converted for this cargo role, most of the extended range design were completed as an armed type IXD2 variant. A 12-boat R class of 2,100-ton submarines had been designed in Italy to carry approximately 600 tons of cargo with

1134-692: The Japanese in the East Indies , given to Germany, and designated UIT-23 , UIT-24 and UIT-25 , respectively. UIT-22 departed Bordeaux for Sumatra in January 1944 and was destroyed by RAF 262 Squadron Catalina bombers off South Africa in March. UIT-23 was sunk by the British submarine Tally-Ho in February. UIT-24 departed Sumatra for Bordeaux in February, but returned to Sumatra in March after its refuelling ship

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1188-824: The North Sea blockade made it nearly impossible for surface ships to leave Germany for the then neutral United States and other locations. The blockade was run with cargo submarines, also called merchant submarines , Deutschland and Bremen , which reached the then neutral United States. The Marie successfully ran the British North Sea blockade and docked, heavily damaged, in Batavia, Dutch East Indies (now called Jakarta ) on May 13, 1916. In 1917 Germany tried unsuccessfully to supply their forces in Africa by sending Zeppelin LZ104 . On

1242-469: The Soviet naval high command initiated a transport submarine program. A first project ( Project 605 ) envisaged a sub that would function as a barge, towed by a standard sub. The idea was discarded due to towing difficulties. Later, a small cargo submarine design (Project 607) with a capacity of 250-300 tons of solid cargo and two folding cargo cranes was proposed. No weapons beyond two deck guns were envisaged, and

1296-445: The US against the use of submarines as merchant ships, arguing that they could not be stopped and inspected for munitions in the same manner as other vessels. The US, under diplomatic pressure for supposedly showing favoritism while having declared itself neutral , rejected the argument. Even submarines, as long as they were unarmed, were to be regarded as merchant vessels and accordingly would be permitted to trade. Deutschland had

1350-468: The actions of German submarines sinking shipping bound for Great Britain, sometimes just outside American territorial waters (See SM  U-53 ). Deutschland was taken over by the German Imperial Navy and converted into the submarine cruiser ( U-Kreuzer ) U-155 (a type of submarine with added artillery to fight when surfaced). It was successful in three war cruises, sinking 43 ships. After

1404-623: The army. French naval aid was vital. During the American Civil War , blockade running became a major enterprise for the Confederacy due to the Union blockade as part of the Anaconda Plan to cut off the Confederacy's overseas trade. Twelve major ports and approximately 3,500 miles of coastline along the Confederacy were patrolled by roughly 500 Union Navy ships. The United Kingdom played

1458-755: The blockade to Britain in Operation Rubble but later attempts failed. In modern times, tracking equipment such as radar, sonar, and reconnaissance satellites make evading a total blockade by a world power nearly impossible. Drug smugglers and groups like the Tamil Tigers are able to run blockades due to the partial nature of the blockade, or because the navy imposing the blockade is weak and under-equipped. Reminiscent of earlier German attempts, drug smugglers have used semi-submersibles ( narco-submarines ) in their smuggling operations. Modus operandi A modus operandi (often shortened to M.O. or MO )

1512-560: The conventional steamers guarding the American coastline, thus enabling them to outmaneuver and outrun blockaders. Among the more notable was the CSS Advance that completed more than 20 successful runs through the Union blockade before being captured. These vessels brought badly needed supplies, especially firearms, and Confederate mail . The blockade played a major role in the Union's victory over

1566-503: The conversion cargo capacity of 160 tons also reduced reserve buoyancy from 20–25 percent to 3.5–6 percent. Several French submarines captured at Bizerta —the 974-ton Phoque , Requin , Espadon , and Dauphin —were also scheduled for conversion. The ships were used on an eastbound route from Bordeaux to Singapore (then in Japanese, thus Axis , hands) with cargoes of mercury, steel and aluminum bars, welding steel, bomb prototypes, 20 mm guns, blueprints for tanks and bombsights, and up to

1620-474: The design borrowed many existing parts from the earlier VI and VI-bis submarine series to simplify construction. However, by 1943 the strategic situation had changed, and the plans were not executed. The Soviet Union envisaged and almost realized various concepts for large cargo submarines during the 1950s and 1960s, though these would not have been counted as merchant ships, being envisaged as navy landing ships to transport troops. They would have been amongst

1674-496: The efficiency of an underwater container ship is considerably higher, for example, than that of an icebreaker transport ship of the Norilsk type. The underwater tanker is competitive." The tanker and container variants would follow the same design as standard military nuclear submarines, with the tanker variant carrying almost 30,000 tons of petroleum, to be loaded and discharged from surface or underwater terminals. The container carrier

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1728-468: The enterprise, the Deutsche Ozean-Reederei , a subsidiary company of the North German Lloyd shipping company (now Hapag-Lloyd) and Deutsche Bank . They were intended to travel the route from Germany to the neutral US , bringing back required raw materials. As the US would not profit enough from receiving German currency, the ships were to carry trade goods both ways. Britain soon protested with

1782-560: The fate of Deutschland . When hostilities between Germany and the United States halted Simon Lake's attempts to build merchant submarines for Germany, Lake approached the United States Shipping Board with a proposal to build one-hundred merchant submarines to alleviate shipping losses being suffered from unrestricted submarine warfare . In World War II, Germany used Milk Cow submarines to refuel its hunter U-boats in

1836-531: The high prices of the patented, highly concentrated dyes, which would have cost 26,844 US dollars per pound adjusted for inflation. In return, the raw materials brought back covered the needs of the German war industry for several months. A second journey in October-December of the same year was also successful, again trading chemicals, medicines and gems for rubber, nickel, alloys and tin. However, Deutschland

1890-736: The largest submarine in history should the project come to fruition. Powered by three nuclear reactors , the boat would be 1,180 feet (360 m) in length with a beam of 230 feet (70 m), capable of transporting up to 180,000 tons, and would primarily sail under the Arctic ice. Simon Lake's merchant submarine proposal was shelved as the World War I convoy system reduced merchant shipping losses. In July and August 1942, Lake's proposals were again mentioned in Senate Subcommittee hearings regarding cargo submarines as well as cargo aircraft. Mostly it

1944-547: The largest submarines of their day, had they been built. In the 1990s, the Malachite design bureau in St. Petersburg proposed submarines capable of transporting petroleum or freight containers in or through Arctic regions. It was envisaged that these ships would dive under the polar ice cap to travel directly between European and Asian ports, and possibly northern Canada, with the designers noting that: "Given equal cargo capacity,

1998-545: The naval blockade of the Entente Powers , mainly enforced by the efforts of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy . The British blockade had led to great difficulties for German companies in acquiring those raw materials which were not found in quantity within the German sphere of influence , and thus was hindering the German war efforts substantially. The submarines were built in 1916 by a private shipping company created for

2052-463: The offender's psychology . It largely consists of examining the actions used by the individuals to execute the crime, prevent its detection and facilitate escape. A suspect's modus operandi can assist in their identification, apprehension, or repression, and can also be used to determine links between crimes. In business, modus operandi is used to describe a firm's preferred means of executing business and interacting with other firms. The plural

2106-525: The only food reaching the city of Carthage . During the 14th century, while Queen Margaret I of Denmark 's forces were besieging Stockholm , the blockade runners who came to be known as the Victual Brotherhood engaged in war at sea and shipped provisions to keep the city supplied. Blockade runners in the American Revolution eluded the British naval blockades in order to supply resources to

2160-645: The outbreak of war, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade of Germany . The fall of France provided the German occupying forces with access to the French Atlantic coast and between 1940 and 1942, many blockade running trips succeeded in delivering cargoes of critical war supplies - especially crude rubber - through the port of Bordeaux; a trade that increased with the entry of Japan into the war in December 1941. Allied attempts to disrupt these operations initially had only

2214-574: The post-Cold War ideas of the Russian Federation, there have been some concept plans to use atomic-powered submarine oil tankers to exploit Arctic oilfields in Alaska and Siberia . General Dynamics had apparently approached German shipbuilders during the early 1980s about the possible construction of either a US$ 725 million nuclear-powered or a US$ 700 million methane -powered version of a liquefied natural gas (LNG) submarine tanker to carry LNG from

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2268-508: The post-Cold War period, Soviet designers also proposed purely peaceful applications. In World War II, the Soviet Union used submarines (as well as other ships) to supply the besieged Crimean port of Sevastopol . The largest could transfer up to 95 tons of cargo, loading even the torpedo tubes with supplies. Around 4,000 tons were delivered by about 80 runs of 27 submarines, though Sevastopol still eventually fell. Based on this experience,

2322-820: The regular fleet, and states having operated them include the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War , and Germany during the World Wars . There were numerous blockades and attempts at blockade running during the Peloponnesian War . With his fleet blockaded, Leon of Salamis dispatched blockade runners to seek reinforcements from Athens. During the Punic Wars , the Carthaginian Empire attempted to evade Roman navy blockades of its ports and strongholds. At one point, blockade runners brought in

2376-619: The ships include: Arkadion (named after the Arkadi Monastery , sunk by the Ottoman sloop-of-war Izzedin in August 1867); Hydra ; Panhellenion ; and Enosis (Unification), which was detained in Syros by Hobart Pasha in December 1868, just about the time the rebellion collapsed. During World War I the Central Powers , most notably Germany, were blockaded by the Entente Powers . In particular

2430-486: The war in June 1940, crossed the Bay of Biscay to Bordeaux and some of them, such as Fidelitas and Eugenio C , dashed through the English Channel bound for Germany and Norway. To transfer technology to Imperial Japan, on 25 March 1945 Nazi Germany dispatched a submarine, U-234 , to sail to Japan. Germany surrendered before it arrived. The Japanese submarine I-8 completed a similar mission. The German ship Ramses

2484-433: The war it was taken to England as a war trophy in December 1918. Scrapped in 1921, the boat's history ended with five workers dying due to an explosion ripping apart the sub during dismantling. A second merchant submarine, the sister ship of Deutschland , launched its first journey in August 1916 under Karl Schwartzkopf, but never arrived in the US. Its fate was never decisively uncovered, though she may have collided with

2538-410: The war, and attempted to block Deutschland ' s return to Germany by raising patent infringement allegations. Lake was placated when a Krupp representative and a Norddeutscher Lloyd agent suggested Lake build 5,000-ton merchant submarines for them in the United States. The profit from the journey was 17.5 million Reichsmarks , more than four times the construction cost, mainly because of

2592-405: Was by an Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.75 Marsupiale , which flew in July 1942 , according to various sources, either from Zaporozhye to Baotou or from Rhodes Island to Rangoon . Later, German Junkers Ju 290 -A aircraft prepared for (or, according to some sources, completed) similar flights . During World War II, trade between Sweden (which remained neutral throughout the war) and Britain

2646-650: Was in China when the war started. On Nov. 23, 1942, she attempted to sail from Batavia (now Jakarta ), to Bordeaux with a cargo of rubber. The hope was that maintaining a sharp 24-hour lookout they could evade the Allied blockade. HMAS Adelaide (1918) caught and sank her. A small number of planes succeeded in flying between the Axis-controlled Europe and the Japanese-controlled parts of Asia. The first known flight

2700-571: Was lightly damaged during a collision with a tug in New London . Following his return, captain Paul König wrote a book (or possibly had it ghostwritten ) about the journeys of Deutschland . The book was heavily publicized, as it was intended to sway public opinion in both Germany and the US. A third journey, planned for January 1917, was aborted after the US entered the war against Germany. The declaration of war had been partly due to US anger over

2754-429: Was regarding to the vital supply of aluminum from South and Central America via submarines to avoid being sunk by enemy U-boats. In 1931, with financial support from William Randolph Hearst , Lake and Sir Hubert Wilkins attempted to demonstrate potential use of merchant submarines to navigate under polar ice with a leased US Navy submarine, ex- USS  O-12  (SS-73) (renamed Nautilus ). Financial limitations of

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2808-451: Was severely curtailed by the German blockade of the Skagerrak straits between Norway and the northern tip of Denmark. In order to import vital materiel from Sweden, such as ball bearings for the British aircraft industry, five Motor Gun Boats , such as the Gay Viking , were converted into blockade runners, using winter darkness and high speed to penetrate the German maritime blockade. Larger Norwegian ships succeeded in escaping through

2862-417: Was sunk. Of the other ships, Ammiraglio Cagni surrendered at South Africa following the Italian Armistice, Archimede and Leonardo da Vinci were sunk before conversion to merchant service while Romolo , Remo , and the French Phoque were sunk prior to loading. The remaining R-class submarines were not completed and conversion work ceased on the remaining three French submarines. During World War II,

2916-423: Was to transport 912 standard (20-foot) freight containers, loaded within 30 hours through hatches, assisted by internal conveyance systems. However, these plans came to nothing in the hard financial straits following the Dissolution of the Soviet Union . A similar design has been proposed by the Rubin Design Bureau with the ' Submarine Cargo Vessel ', a civilian redesign of the famous Typhoon-class submarine of

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