Misplaced Pages

#379620

88-554: And hundreds more microspecies (the subgenus also includes the dewberries ) Rubus subg. Eubatus The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the genus Rubus in the family Rosaceae , hybrids among these species within the subgenus Rubus , and hybrids between the subgenera Rubus and Idaeobatus . The taxonomy of blackberries has historically been confused because of hybridization and apomixis , so that species have often been grouped together and called species aggregates . Blackberry fruit production

176-526: A noxious weed . Blackberry fruits are red when unripe, leading to an old expression that "blackberries are red when they're green". Worldwide, Mexico is the leading producer of blackberries, with nearly the entire crop being produced for export into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe. Until 2018, the Mexican market was almost entirely based on the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi', but

264-550: A pupal stage before becoming adults. Caterpillars grow very quickly; for instance, a tobacco hornworm will increase its weight ten-thousandfold in less than twenty days. An adaptation that enables them to eat so much is a mechanism in a specialized midgut that quickly transports ions to the lumen (midgut cavity), to keep the potassium level higher in the midgut cavity than in the hemolymph . Most caterpillars are solely herbivorous . Many are restricted to feeding on one species of plant, while others are polyphagous. Some, including

352-594: A 100 grams (3.5 oz) reference amount, raw cultivated blackberries supply 43 calories and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value (DV) of dietary fiber , manganese (31% DV), vitamin C (25% DV), and vitamin K (19% DV) (table). Blackberries contain numerous large seeds that are not always preferred by consumers. The seeds contain oil rich in omega-3 ( alpha-linolenic acid ) and omega-6 ( linoleic acid ) fats as well as protein , dietary fiber, carotenoids , ellagitannins , and ellagic acid . The ripe fruit

440-484: A caterpillar with an aggressive defense mechanism will learn and avoid future attempts. Some caterpillars regurgitate acidic digestive juices at attacking enemies. Many papilionid larvae produce bad smells from extrudable glands called osmeteria . Many caterpillars display feeding behaviors which allow the caterpillar to remain hidden from potential predators. Many feed in protected environments, such as enclosed inside silk galleries, rolled leaves or by mining between

528-637: A decade or more. These varieties have diverse flavors varying from sweet to tart. Trailing blackberries are vigorous and crown-forming, require a trellis for support, and are less cold-hardy than the erect or semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the Pacific Northwest , these types do well in similar climates, such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Chile, and the Mediterranean countries . Semi-erect, prickle-free blackberries were first developed at

616-468: A dormant state. The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator: its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, or non-edible. Some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous or distasteful and their bright coloring warns predators of this . Others may mimic dangerous caterpillars or other animals while not being dangerous themselves. Many caterpillars are cryptically colored and resemble

704-530: A host in the case of symbionts or extreme environments). This may constrain possible directions of evolution; in such cases, strongly divergent selection is not to be expected. Also, asexual reproduction, such as through apomixis in plants, may separate lineages without producing a great degree of morphological differentiation. A species complex is usually a group that has one common ancestor (a monophyletic group), but closer examination can sometimes disprove that. For example, yellow-spotted "fire salamanders" in

792-448: A new stem, the primocane , reaches a full length of about 3–6 metres (9.8–19.7 feet) trailing on the ground and bearing large palmate compound leaves with 5–7 new leaves; it does not produce any flowers. In its second year, the cane is a floricane with a non-growing stem. The lateral buds open to produce flowering laterals. First- and second-year shoots produce short-curved, sharp thorns . Thornless cultivars have been developed during

880-554: A species complex in formation. Nevertheless, similar but distinct species have sometimes been isolated for a long time without evolving differences, a phenomenon known as "morphological stasis". For example, the Amazonian frog Pristimantis ockendeni is actually at least three different species that diverged over 5 million years ago. Stabilizing selection has been invoked as a force maintaining similarity in species complexes, especially when they adapted to special environments (such as

968-496: A species complex. Distinguishing close species within a complex requires the study of often very small differences. Morphological differences may be minute and visible only by the use of adapted methods, such as microscopy . However, distinct species sometimes have no morphological differences. In those cases, other characters, such as in the species' life history , behavior , physiology , and karyology , may be explored. For example, territorial songs are indicative of species in

SECTION 10

#1732859079380

1056-437: A species group usually have partially overlapping ranges but do not interbreed with one another. A Dictionary of Zoology ( Oxford University Press 1999) describes a species group as complex of related species that exist allopatrically and explains that the "grouping can often be supported by experimental crosses in which only certain pairs of species will produce hybrids ." The examples given below may support both uses of

1144-685: Is a serious pest of blackberries. Unlike its vinegar fly relatives, which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, D. suzukii attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's commercial value. Another pest is Amphorophora rubi , known as the blackberry aphid, which eats not just blackberries but raspberries as well. Byturus tomentosus ( raspberry beetle ), Lampronia corticella (raspberry moth) and Anthonomus rubi (strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest blackberries. Raw blackberries are 88% water, 10% carbohydrates , 1% protein , and 0.5% fat (table). In

1232-471: Is abundant with annual volumes of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) per 1 acre (0.40 ha) possible, making this plant commercially attractive. Rubus armeniacus ("Himalayan" blackberry) is considered a noxious weed and invasive species in many regions of the Pacific Northwest of Canada and the United States, where it grows out of control in urban and suburban parks and woodlands. What distinguishes

1320-603: Is among the most potent defensive chemicals in any animal is produced by the South American silk moth genus Lonomia . Its venom is an anticoagulant powerful enough to cause a human to hemorrhage to death (See Lonomiasis ). This chemical is being investigated for potential medical applications. Most urticating hairs range in effect from mild irritation to dermatitis . Example: brown-tail moth . Plants contain toxins which protect them from herbivores, but some caterpillars have evolved countermeasures which enable them to eat

1408-662: Is an important cultivar that was selected from seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called " Olallieberry ") berries. 'Olallie' in turn is a cross between loganberry and youngberry . 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding program at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon . The most recent cultivars released from this program are

1496-570: Is another approach used in reducing the impact of caterpillars on crop plants. Some caterpillars are used in industry. The silk industry is based on the silkworm caterpillar. Caterpillar hair can be a cause of human health problems. Caterpillar hairs sometimes have venoms in them and species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ranging from urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis , consumption coagulopathy , kidney failure , and brain bleeding . Skin rashes are

1584-452: Is commonly used in desserts, jams, jelly, wine and liqueurs . It may be mixed with other berries and fruits for pies and crumbles . Blackberries contain numerous phytochemicals including polyphenols , flavonoids , anthocyanins , salicylic acid , ellagic acid , and fiber . Anthocyanins in blackberries are responsible for their rich dark color. One report placed blackberries at the top of more than 1,000 polyphenol-rich foods consumed in

1672-431: Is important for disease and pest control and in conservation biology although the drawing of dividing lines between species can be inherently difficult . A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as "separately evolving metapopulation lineage " but acknowledges that

1760-480: Is not a berry in the botanical sense, as it is termed botanically as an aggregate fruit , composed of small drupelets . It is a widespread and well-known group of over 375 species, many of which are closely related apomictic microspecies native throughout Europe, northwestern Africa, temperate western and central Asia and North and South America. Blackberries are perennial plants bearing biennial stems (called canes ) from their roots. In its first year,

1848-583: Is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s. The 'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche', and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as parents. Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the widely grown ' Boysenberry ' is the male parent. To produce these blackberries in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring

SECTION 20

#1732859079380

1936-460: Is occurring, which leads to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. The informal classification, superspecies, can be exemplified by the grizzled skipper butterfly, which is a superspecies that is further divided into three subspecies. Some authors apply the term to a species with intraspecific variability , which might be a sign of ongoing or incipient speciation . Examples are ring species or species with subspecies , in which it

2024-504: Is often unclear if they should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a species complex, but some of them may also have slightly different or narrower meanings. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenus and species, but the botanical code defines four ranks below subgenus (section, subsection, series, and subseries). Different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate

2112-412: Is one species that preys upon caterpillars. The flycatcher typically finds caterpillars among oak foliage. Paper wasps , including those in the genus Polistes and Polybia catch caterpillars to feed their young and themselves. Caterpillars have been called "eating machines", and eat leaves voraciously. Most species shed their skin four or five times as their bodies grow, and they eventually enter

2200-479: Is some value in this legend as autumn's wetter and cooler weather often allows the fruit to become infected by various molds such as Botryotinia which give the fruit an unpleasant look and may be toxic. According to some traditions, a blackberry's deep purple color represents Jesus's blood and the crown of thorns was made of brambles, although other thorny plants, such as Crataegus (hawthorn) and Euphorbia milii (crown of thorns plant), have been proposed as

2288-479: The Galápagos Islands described by Charles Darwin . It has been suggested that cryptic species complexes are very common in the marine environment. That suggestion came before the detailed analysis of many systems using DNA sequence data but has been proven to be correct. The increased use of DNA sequence in the investigation of organismal diversity (also called phylogeography and DNA barcoding ) has led to

2376-611: The John Innes Centre in Norwich , UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, Maryland . These are crown forming and very vigorous and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin', 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Maree', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem', and 'Triple Crown'. 'Loch Ness' and 'Loch Tay' have gained

2464-693: The RHS 's Award of Garden Merit . The cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been planted on many thousands of hectares there. The University of Arkansas has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore they spread underground like raspberries). There are prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program, including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho', and 'Kiowa'. They are also responsible for developing

2552-420: The clothes moth , feed on detritus . Some are predatory, and may prey on other species of caterpillars (e.g. Hawaiian Eupithecia ). Others feed on eggs of other insects, aphids, scale insects, or ant larvae. A few are parasitic on cicadas or leaf hoppers ( Epipyropidae ). Some Hawaiian caterpillars ( Hyposmocoma molluscivora ) use silk traps to capture snails. Many caterpillars are nocturnal. For example,

2640-399: The criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied. Thus, many traditionally defined species, based only on morphological similarity, have been found to be several distinct species when other criteria, such as genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation , are applied. A more restricted use applies the term to a group of species among which hybridisation has occurred or

2728-617: The locust , thus they are one of the plagues of Egypt. Jeremiah names them as one of the inhabitants of Babylon . The English word caterpillar derives from the old French catepelose (hairy cat) but merged with the piller (pillager). Caterpillars became a symbol for social dependents. Shakespeare 's Bolingbroke described King Richard 's friends as "The caterpillars of the commonwealth, Which I have sworn to weed and pluck away". In 1790 William Blake referenced this popular image in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell when he attacked priests: "as

Blackberry - Misplaced Pages Continue

2816-886: The malaria vector genus of mosquito, Anopheles , the fungi causing cryptococcosis , and sister species of Bactrocera tryoni , or the Queensland fruit fly. That pest is indistinguishable from two sister species except that B. tryoni inflicts widespread, devastating damage to Australian fruit crops, but the sister species do not. When a species is found to be several phylogenetically distinct species, each typically has smaller distribution ranges and population sizes than had been reckoned. The different species can also differ in their ecology, such as by having different breeding strategies or habitat requirements, which must be taken into account for appropriate management. For example, giraffe populations and subspecies differ genetically to such an extent that they may be considered species. Although

2904-471: The treecreepers , a bird genus with few morphological differences. Mating tests are common in some groups such as fungi to confirm the reproductive isolation of two species. Analysis of DNA sequences is becoming increasingly standard for species recognition and may, in many cases, be the only useful method. Different methods are used to analyse such genetic data, such as molecular phylogenetics or DNA barcoding . Such methods have greatly contributed to

2992-453: The "cutworms" (of the family Noctuidae ) hide at the base of plants during the day and only feed at night. Others, such as spongy moth ( Lymantria dispar ) larvae, change their activity patterns depending on density and larval stage, with more diurnal feeding in early instars and high densities. Caterpillars cause much damage, mainly by eating leaves. The propensity for damage is enhanced by monocultural farming practices, especially where

3080-410: The Amazonian frog Eleutherodactylus ockendeni is actually at least three different species that diverged over 5 million years ago. A species flock may arise when a species penetrates a new geographical area and diversifies to occupy a variety of ecological niches , a process known as adaptive radiation . The first species flock to be recognized as such was the 13 species of Darwin's finches on

3168-485: The Christian tradition. Goedart thus located his empirical observations on the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies in the Christian tradition. As such he argued that the metamorphosis from caterpillar into butterfly was a symbol, and even proof, of Christ's resurrection. He argued "that from dead caterpillars emerge living animals; so it is equally true and miraculous, that our dead and rotten corpses will rise from

3256-593: The EMBRAPA program in Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy' spelling), but Tupy fell out of favor in some Mexican growing regions. In the US, Oregon is the leading commercial blackberry producer, producing 19,300,000 kilograms (42,600,000 pounds) on 2,500 hectares (6,300 acres) in 2017. Numerous cultivars have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe and

3344-595: The United States, but this concept of a health benefit from consuming dark-colored foods like blackberries remains scientifically unverified and not accepted for health claims on food labels. One of the earliest known instances of blackberry consumption comes from the remains of the Haraldskær Woman , the naturally preserved bog body of a Danish woman dating from approximately 2,500 years ago. Forensic evidence found blackberries in her stomach contents, among other foods. The use of blackberries to make wines and cordials

3432-451: The United States. Since the many species form hybrids easily, there are numerous cultivars with more than one species in their ancestry. Modern hybridization and cultivar development took place mostly in the US. In 1880, a hybrid blackberry-raspberry named the loganberry was developed in Santa Cruz, California , by an American judge and horticulturalist , James Harvey Logan . One of

3520-456: The application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Symphyta) are commonly called caterpillars as well. Both lepidopteran and symphytan larvae have eruciform body shapes. Caterpillars of most species eat plant material ( often leaves ), but not all; some (about 1%) eat insects , and some are even cannibalistic. Some feed on other animal products. For example, clothes moths feed on wool, and horn moths feed on

3608-626: The berries is a common pastime. However, their vigorous growth and tendency to grow unchecked if not managed correctly means that the plants are also considered a weed, sending down roots from branches that touch the ground , and sending up suckers from the roots. In some parts of the world, such as in Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of North America, some blackberry species, particularly Rubus armeniacus (Himalayan blackberry) and Rubus laciniatus (evergreen blackberry), are naturalized and considered an invasive species and

Blackberry - Misplaced Pages Continue

3696-435: The blackberry from its raspberry relatives is whether or not the torus ( receptacle or stem) "picks with" (i.e., stays with) the fruit. When picking a blackberry fruit, the torus stays with the fruit. With a raspberry, the torus remains on the plant, leaving a hollow core in the raspberry fruit. The term bramble , a word referring to any impenetrable thicket , has in some circles traditionally been applied specifically to

3784-419: The blackberry or its products, though in the United States it applies to all members of the genus Rubus . In the western US, the term caneberry is used to refer to blackberries and raspberries as a group rather than the term bramble. Briar or brier may be used to refer to the dense vines of the plant, though this name is used for other thorny thickets (such as Smilax ) as well. The usually black fruit

3872-553: The caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lay his curse on the fairest joys". The role of caterpillars in the life stages of butterflies was badly understood. In 1679 Maria Sibylla Merian published the first volume of The Caterpillars' Marvelous Transformation and Strange Floral Food , which contained 50 illustrations and a description of insects, moths, butterflies and their larvae . An earlier popular publication on moths and butterflies, and their caterpillars, by Jan Goedart had not included eggs in

3960-428: The caterpillar is specifically adapted to the host plant under cultivation. The cotton bollworm causes enormous losses. Other species eat food crops. Caterpillars have been the target of pest control through the use of pesticides , biological control and agronomic practices. Many species have become resistant to pesticides . Bacterial toxins such as those from Bacillus thuringiensis which are evolved to affect

4048-458: The caterpillars of the Lepidoptera. Such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly suborder. However while these larvae superficially resemble caterpillars, they can be distinguished by the presence of prolegs on every abdominal segment, an absence of crochets or hooks on the prolegs (these are present on lepidopteran caterpillars), one pair of prominent ocelli on the head capsule, and an absence of

4136-525: The digression of those who have tried to prove Resurrection of the Dead from these obviously natural and comprehensible changes within the creature itself." Since then the metamorphoses of the caterpillar into a butterfly has in Western societies been associated with countless human transformations in folktales and literature. There is no process in the physical life of human beings that resembles this metamorphoses, and

4224-407: The discovery of a great many cryptic species complexes in all habitats. In the marine bryozoan Celleporella hyalina , detailed morphological analyses and mating compatibility tests between the isolates identified by DNA sequence analysis were used to confirm that these groups consisted of more than 10 ecologically distinct species, which had been diverging for many millions of years. Evidence from

4312-469: The discovery of cryptic species, including such emblematic species as the fly agaric , the water fleas , or the African elephants . Species forming a complex have typically diverged very recently from each other, which sometimes allows the retracing of the process of speciation . Species with differentiated populations, such as ring species , are sometimes seen as an example of early, ongoing speciation:

4400-522: The early 21st century. Unmanaged plants tend to aggregate in a dense tangle of stems and branches, which can be controlled in gardens or farms using trellises . Blackberry shrubs can tolerate poor soils , spreading readily in wasteland, ditches, and roadsides. The flowers bloom in late spring and early summer on the tips of branches. Each flower is about 2–3 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches) in diameter, with five white-pink petals . The fruit only develops around ovules fertilized by

4488-473: The environment such as bird droppings. Some Geometridae cover themselves in plant parts, while bagworms construct and live in a bag covered in sand, pebbles or plant material. More aggressive self-defense measures have evolved in some caterpillars. These measures include having spiny bristles or long fine hair-like setae with detachable tips that will irritate by lodging in the skin or mucous membranes. However some birds (such as cuckoos ) will swallow even

SECTION 50

#1732859079380

4576-407: The eyes. Once they enter such tissues, they can be difficult to extract, often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane. This becomes a particular problem in an indoor setting. The hair easily enter buildings through ventilation systems and accumulate in indoor environments because of their small size, which makes it difficult for them to be vented out. This accumulation increases

4664-556: The first thornless varieties was developed in 1921, but the berries lost much of their flavor. Common thornless cultivars developed from the 1990s to the early 21st century by the US Department of Agriculture enabled efficient machine-harvesting, higher yields, larger and firmer fruit, and improved flavor, including the Triple Crown , Black Diamond , Black Pearl , and Nightfall , a marionberry . 'Marion' (marketed as " marionberry ")

4752-479: The founder of Cartesian philosophy, and his theory on innate ideas. Descartes argued that we are distracted by urgent bodily stimuli that swamp the human mind in childhood. Descartes also theorised that inherited preconceived opinions obstruct the human perception of the truth . More recent symbolic references to caterpillars in popular media include the Mad Men season 3 episode "The Fog", in which Betty Draper has

4840-536: The genus Salamandra , formerly all classified as one species S. salamandra , are not monophyletic: the Corsican fire salamander 's closest relative has been shown to be the entirely black Alpine salamander . In such cases, similarity has arisen from convergent evolution . Hybrid speciation can lead to unclear species boundaries through a process of reticulate evolution , in which species have two parent species as their most recent common ancestors . In such cases,

4928-402: The giraffe, as a whole, is not considered to be threatened, if each cryptic species is considered separately, there is a much higher level of threat. Caterpillar Caterpillars ( / ˈ k æ t ər p ɪ l ər / KAT -ər-pil-ər ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths ). As with most common names,

5016-403: The grave." Swammerdam, who in 1669 had demonstrated that inside a caterpillar the rudiments of the future butterfly's limbs and wings could be discerned, attacked the mystical and religious notion that the caterpillar died and the butterfly subsequently resurrected. As a militant Cartesian , Swammerdam attacked Goedart as ridiculous, and when publishing his findings he proclaimed "here we witness

5104-474: The gut of Lepidoptera have been used in sprays of bacterial spores, toxin extracts and also by incorporating genes to produce them within the host plants. These approaches are defeated over time by the evolution of resistance mechanisms in the insects. Plants evolve mechanisms of resistance to being eaten by caterpillars, including the evolution of chemical toxins and physical barriers such as hairs. Incorporating host plant resistance (HPR) through plant breeding

5192-425: The hairiest of caterpillars. Other caterpillars acquire toxins from their host plants that render them unpalatable to most of their predators. For instance, ornate moth caterpillars utilize pyrrolizidine alkaloids that they obtain from their food plants to deter predators. The most aggressive caterpillar defenses are bristles associated with venom glands. These bristles are called urticating hairs . A venom which

5280-517: The hooves and horns of dead ungulates . Caterpillars are typically voracious feeders and many of them are among the most serious of agricultural pests . In fact, many moth species are best known in their caterpillar stages because of the damage they cause to fruits and other agricultural produce, whereas the moths are obscure and do no direct harm. Conversely, various species of caterpillar are valued as sources of silk, as human or animal food, or for biological control of pest plants. The origins of

5368-533: The hybrid species may have intermediate characters, such as in Heliconius butterflies. Hybrid speciation has been observed in various species complexes, such as insects, fungi, and plants. In plants, hybridization often takes place through polyploidization , and hybrid plant species are called nothospecies . Sources differ on whether or not members of a species group share a range . A source from Iowa State University Department of Agronomy states that members of

SECTION 60

#1732859079380

5456-424: The identification of cryptic species has led some to conclude that current estimates of global species richness are too low. Pests, species that cause diseases and their vectors, have direct importance for humans. When they are found to be cryptic species complexes, the ecology and the virulence of each of these species need to be re-evaluated to devise appropriate control strategies. Examples are cryptic species in

5544-895: The leaf surfaces. Some caterpillars, like early instars of the tomato hornworm and tobacco hornworm , have long "whip-like" organs attached to the ends of their body. The caterpillar wiggles these organs to frighten away flies and predatory wasps. Some caterpillars can evade predators by using a silk line and dropping off from branches when disturbed. Many species thrash about violently when disturbed to scare away potential predators. One species ( Amorpha juglandis ) even makes high pitched whistles that can scare away birds. Some caterpillars obtain protection by associating themselves with ants . The Lycaenid butterflies are particularly well known for this. They communicate with their ant protectors by vibrations as well as chemical means and typically provide food rewards. Some caterpillars are gregarious ; large aggregations are believed to help in reducing

5632-497: The leaves of such toxic plants. In addition to being unaffected by the poison, the caterpillars sequester it in their body, making them highly toxic to predators. The chemicals are also carried on into the adult stages. These toxic species, such as the cinnabar moth ( Tyria jacobaeae ) and monarch ( Danaus plexippus ) caterpillars, usually advertise themselves with the danger colors of red, yellow and black, often in bright stripes (see aposematism ). Any predator that attempts to eat

5720-475: The leaves. Caterpillars of the concealer moth Alabonia geoffrella have been found feeding inside dead blackberry shoots. When mature, the berries are eaten and their seeds dispersed by mammals, such as the red fox, American black bear and the Eurasian badger, as well as by small birds. Blackberries grow wild throughout most of Europe. They are an important element in the ecology of many countries, and harvesting

5808-524: The levels of parasitization and predation. Clusters amplify the signal of aposematic coloration, and individuals may participate in group regurgitation or displays. Pine processionary ( Thaumetopoea pityocampa ) caterpillars often link into a long train to move through trees and over the ground. The head of the lead caterpillar is visible, but the other heads can appear hidden. Forest tent caterpillars cluster during periods of cold weather. Caterpillars are eaten by many animals. The European pied flycatcher

5896-438: The life stages of European moths and butterflies, because he had believed that caterpillars were generated from water. When Merian published her study of caterpillars it was still widely believed that insects were spontaneously generated. Merian's illustrations supported the findings of Francesco Redi , Marcello Malpighi and Jan Swammerdam . Butterflies were regarded as symbol for the human soul since ancient time, and also in

5984-578: The male gamete from a pollen grain. The most likely cause of undeveloped ovules is inadequate pollinator visits. Incomplete drupelet development can signal infection with raspberry bushy dwarf virus . The loci controlling the primocane fruiting was mapped in the F Locus, on LG7, whereas thorns/thornlessness was mapped on LG4. Better understanding of the genetics is useful for genetic screening of cross-breds, and for genetic engineering purposes. Blackberry leaves are food for certain caterpillars ; some grazing mammals, especially deer, are also very fond of

6072-500: The material for the crown. Microspecies Two or more taxa that were once considered conspecific (of the same species) may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa (taxa within a species, such as bacterial strains or plant varieties ), which may be a complex ranking but it is not a species complex. In most cases, a species complex is a monophyletic group of species with a common ancestor, but there are exceptions. It may represent an early stage after speciation in which

6160-426: The most common, but there have been fatalities. Lonomia is a frequent cause of envenomation in Brazil, with 354 cases reported between 1989 and 2005. Lethality ranging up to 20% with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage. Caterpillar hair has also been known to cause kerato - conjunctivitis . The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucous membranes such as

6248-776: The plants into bloom. Because blackberries belong to the same genus as raspberries, they share the same diseases, including anthracnose (a type of canker ), which can cause the berry to have uneven ripening. Sap flow may also be slowed. They also share the same remedies, including the Bordeaux mixture, a combination of lime, water and copper(II) sulfate . The rows between blackberry plants must be free of weeds, blackberry suckers and grasses, which may lead to pests or diseases. Fruit growers are selective when planting blackberry bushes because wild blackberries may be infected, and gardeners are recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants. The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii ,

6336-469: The plants on which they feed. An example of caterpillars that use camouflage for defense is the species Nemoria arizonaria . If the caterpillars hatch in the spring and feed on oak catkins they appear green. If they hatch in the summer they appear dark colored, like oak twigs. The differential development is linked to the tannin content in the diet. Caterpillars may even have spines or growths that resemble plant parts such as thorns. Some look like objects in

6424-488: The position that in spite of changes it is still possible to know something, and that Alice is the same Alice at the beginning and end of a considerable interval. When the Caterpillar asks Alice to clarify a point, the child replies "I'm afraid I can't put it more clearly... for I can't but understand it myself, to begin with, and being so many different sizes in a day is very confusing". Here Carroll satirizes René Descartes ,

6512-426: The primary reason for this unusual locomotion is the elimination of nearly all the prolegs except the clasper on the terminal segment. Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Their size varies between species and instars (moults) from as small as 1 millimetre (0.039 in) up to 14 centimetres (5.5 in). Some larvae of the order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) can appear like

6600-457: The primocane fruiting blackberries such as 'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'. In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and 'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the University of Arkansas and are the first cultivars of primocane fruiting blackberry. They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above; however, the canes that emerge in

6688-617: The risk of human contact in indoor environments. Caterpillars are a food source in some cultures. For example, in South Africa mopane worms are eaten by the bushmen , and in China silkworms are considered a delicacy. In the Old Testament of the Bible caterpillars are feared as pests that devour crops. They are part of the "pestilence, blasting, mildew, locust" because of their association with

6776-461: The same species. Where closely related species co-exist in sympatry , it is often a particular challenge to understand how the similar species persist without outcompeting each other. Niche partitioning is one mechanism invoked to explain that. Indeed, studies in some species complexes suggest that species divergence have gone in par with ecological differentiation, with species now preferring different microhabitats. Similar methods also found that

6864-605: The species were separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex. Species complexes are ubiquitous and are identified by the rigorous study of differences between individual species that uses minute morphological details, tests of reproductive isolation , or DNA -based methods, such as molecular phylogenetics and DNA barcoding . The existence of extremely similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. The recognition of similar-but-distinct species

6952-521: The spring will flower in midsummer and fruit in late summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool mild climate such as in California or the Pacific Northwest. 'Illini Hardy', a semi-erect prickly cultivar introduced by the University of Illinois , is cane hardy in zone 5, where blackberry production has traditionally been problematic, since canes often failed to survive

7040-449: The stems to make rope. The shrubs have also been used for barriers around buildings, crops and livestock. The wild plants have sharp, thick prickles, which offered some protection against enemies and large animals. Folklore in the United Kingdom and Ireland tells that blackberries should not be picked after Old Michaelmas Day (11 October) as the devil (or a Púca ) has made them unfit to eat by stepping, spitting or fouling on them. There

7128-508: The symbol of the caterpillar tends to depict a psychic transformation of a human. As such the caterpillar has in the Christian tradition become a metaphor for being "born again". Famously, in Lewis Carroll 's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland a caterpillar asks Alice "Who are you?". When Alice comments on the caterpillar's inevitable transformation into a butterfly, the caterpillar champions

7216-549: The term "species group." Often, such complexes do not become evident until a new species is introduced into the system, which breaks down existing species barriers. An example is the introduction of the Spanish slug in Northern Europe , where interbreeding with the local black slug and red slug , which were traditionally considered clearly separate species that did not interbreed, shows that they may be actually just subspecies of

7304-621: The thornless cultivars 'Black Diamond', 'Black Pearl', and 'Nightfall' as well as the early-ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'. 'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Newberry', 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', ' Kotata ', 'Pacific', and 'Cascade'. Varieties with good commercial characteristics developed in Arkansas are grown in nurseries in Oklahoma . Such blackberries are easy to grow, and may produce fruit for

7392-507: The upside-down Y-shaped suture on the front of the head. Lepidopteran caterpillars can be differentiated from sawfly larvae by: In 2019 , a geometrid moth caterpillar dating back to the Eocene epoch , approximately 44 million years ago , was found preserved in Baltic amber . It was described under Eogeometer vadens . Previously, another fossil dating back approximately 125 million years

7480-505: The winter. Blackberry production in Mexico expanded considerably in the early 21st century. In 2017, Mexico had 97% of the market share for fresh blackberries imported into the United States, while Chile had 61% of the market share for American imports of frozen blackberries. While once based on the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the Mexican industry

7568-501: The word "caterpillar" date from the early 16th century. They derive from Middle English catirpel , catirpeller , probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose : cate , cat (from Latin cattus ) + pelose , hairy (from Latin pilōsus ). The inchworm, or looper caterpillars from the family Geometridae are so named because of the way they move, appearing to measure the earth (the word geometrid means earth-measurer in Greek );

7656-564: Was documented in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1696. In the culinary world, blackberries have a long history of use alongside other fruits to make pies, jellies and jams. Blackberry plants were used for traditional medicine by Greeks, other European peoples, and aboriginal Americans. A 1771 document described brewing blackberry leaves, stem, and bark for stomach ulcers . Blackberry fruit, leaves, and stems have been used to dye fabrics and hair. Native Americans have even been known to use

7744-482: Was found in Lebanese amber . Many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein. As a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defense. Caterpillars have evolved defenses against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions. Some Arctic species like Gynaephora groenlandica have special basking and aggregation behaviours apart from physiological adaptations to remain in

#379620