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46-409: Vaudeville had what were known as "circuits", venues that booked touring entertainers. Racism made it difficult for a black performer to be accepted into the white circuits of the day, though some performers had crossover appeal. The Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA) was created for Black performers to get steady bookings in theaters that served Black audiences. Eventually, TOBA was replaced in

92-493: A Negro show without the help of a single white man." As his business grew, he was able to own and manage multiple tent shows, and the Rabbit's Foot Company would travel to as many as sixteen states in a season. The show included minstrel performances, dancers, circus acts, comedy, musical ensemble pieces, drama and classic opera, and was known as one of the few "authentic negro" vaudeville shows around. It traveled most successfully in

138-416: A jump, feet would continue to dance in mid air. Soft shoe was more relaxed and elegant. Metal plates were added to the bottom of tap shoes to create a stronger percussion sound. However, after just a few short dance routines the softwood Vaudeville stage would easily tatter. Theater owners replaced the section of the stage that was in front of the curtain with durable maple , which spared them from changing out

184-507: A lively form developed from black folk music prominently featuring piano and banjo. The fast tempo of Ragtime matched the pace of the Vaudevillian revue type show. Thomas Greene Bethune or ("Blind Tom") composed 100 pieces and could play over 7,000. He was exploited by a slave owner John Benthune. For example, John let Tom perform to make himself money. “Blind Tom” made $ 100,000 in 1866 and only received $ 3,000 of this. John William Boone

230-504: A new carriage and eighty-foot round tent so the show could go on the following week. Pat Chappelle died from an unspecified illness in October 1911, aged 42, and the Rabbit's Foot Company was bought in 1912 by Fred Swift Wolcott (1882-1967), a white farmer originally from Michigan , who had owned a small carnival company, F. S. Wolcott Carnivals. Wolcott maintained the Rabbit's Foot company as

276-407: A regional Southern dish associated with blacks and their slave heritage:“ chitlins ”, deep fried pig's knuckles and intestines. Chitlin' circuit touring groups would often be forced to perform in venues such as school auditoriums because theaters were not always available to them due to segregation . ” They would also travel directly to black neighborhoods to bring them entertainment. The content of

322-625: A small vaudeville circuit, including theatre venues in Savannah, Georgia , as well as Jacksonville and Tampa. By 1902 it was said that the Chappelle Bros. Circuit had full control of the African-American vaudeville business in that part of the country, "able to give from 12 to 14 weeks [of employment] to at least 75 performers and musicians" each season. Chappelle stated that he had "accomplished what no other Negro has done - he has successfully run

368-441: A touring show, initially as both owner and manager, and attracted new talent including blues singer Ida Cox who joined the company in 1913. "Ma" Rainey also brought the young Bessie Smith into the troupe, and worked with her until Smith left in 1915. The show's touring base moved to Wolcott's 1,000-acre Glen Sade Plantation outside Port Gibson, Mississippi in 1918, with offices in the center of town. Wolcott began to refer to

414-401: A way for performers to create percussion sounding beats by tapping or slapping their chests and thighs. In the 1870s and 1880s, hamboning was mixed with clog-shoe dances and Irish jigs to create tap. Vaudeville saw two types of tap: buck-and-wing and four-four time soft shoe . Buck-and-wing consisted of gliding, sliding, and stomping movements at high speeds. Wing was a portion in which on

460-673: A white actors strike in 1901 opened doors for African-American performers. Some Black performers opted for working only for Black audiences,; others formed their own touring companies, labor organizations, booking agencies and theater circuits. Before 1912, when Sherman H. Dudley put together the Colored Consolidated Vaudeville Exchange, vaudeville's major circuits usually included only the managers of theaters serving white audiences. But early Black entrepreneurs like Pat Chappelle organized travelling shows and smaller circuits for black and white audiences and helped pave

506-633: A young William Basie (before he came to be called "Count") on tour with Gonzelle White , and four-year-old Sammy Davis Jr. all performed on the T.O.B.A. circuit. According to writer Preston Lauterbach, "a basic TOBA troupe carried about all the variety a single stage could hold, not to mention all the personalities one sleeping car could hold", including tap dancers, comedy teams, actors, and blues singers. Their backdrops, costumes and props moved with them. The most prestigious black theaters in Harlem , Philadelphia , and Washington, D.C. , were not part of

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552-454: The Freeman described their travel accommodations as “their own train of new dining and sleeping cars, which ‘tis said, when finished, will be a ‘palace on wheels.” Like his Famous Imperial Minstrel show, A Rabbit's Foot contained minstrel and a variety of acts while maintaining the expected vaudeville staging flare. Chappelle offered a show for everyone. In mid-1900, Chappelle decided to put

598-768: The Mason-Dixon line that regularly sought black audiences, according to one reference. T.O.B.A. paid less and generally had worse touring arrangements, which the performers had to pay for themselves, than the white vaudeville counterpart. T.O.B.A. became less successful as the Great Depression struck, collapsing in late 1930 when Dudley sold his chain of theaters to a cinema company. Its earliest star performers included singers Ethel Waters , Gertrude Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith , Edmonia Henderson , Mamie Smith , Minto Cato and Adelaide Hall ; comedian Tim Moore with his Chicago Follies company (which included his wife Gertie);

644-874: The Whitman Sisters and their Company; musicians Fletcher Henderson , Fats Waller , Louis Armstrong , Noble Sissle , Eubie Blake , Joe "King" Oliver , and Duke Ellington ; comedians Sandy Burns , Salem Whitney Tutt , Boots Hope , Seymour James , and Tom Fletcher ; future Paris sensation Josephine Baker ; songwriter and pianist Perry Bradford , the mime Johnny Hudgins ; dancers U. S. Thompson , Walter Batie , Earl "Snakehips" Tucker , and Valaida Snow ; and many others. In addition, later well-known names such as Florence Mills , Lincoln " Stepin Fetchit " Perry, Hattie McDaniel , Mantan Moreland , Jackie "Moms" Mabley , Dewey Pigmeat Markham , Johnny Lee, Marshall "Garbage" Rogers , Amanda Randolph , Chick Webb , Cab Calloway ,

690-508: The Whitman Sisters was highly praised for her skills in both ballet and tap-dancing. Dancer and choreographer Aida Overton Walker was known as the Vaudeville Queen of the Cakewalk . The black musicians and composers of the vaudeville era influenced what is now known as American musical comedy , jazz , blues and Broadway musical theater. The popular music of the time was ragtime ,

736-420: The 1920s and 1930s, playing small towns during the week and bigger cities at weekends. The show provided a basis for the careers of many leading African American musicians and entertainers, including Butterbeans and Susie , Tim Moore , Big Joe Williams , Louis Jordan , George Guesnon , Leon "Pee Wee" Whittaker , Brownie McGhee , and Rufus Thomas . Wolcott remained its general manager and owner until he sold

782-457: The 1930s by " chitlin' circuits ", which emerged to link black performers and entertainment opportunities. American Vaudeville began in the early 1880s, at the end of Reconstruction , and ended with the rise of talking cinema and the Great Depression in the early 1930s. Each vaudeville show contained a number of different acts, which might feature singing, dancing, comedy, and novelty acts. With its roots in variety and Minstrel Shows of

828-663: The Buckingham, in the Fort Brooke neighborhood. The Buckingham Theatre opened in September 1899, and within a few months was reported to be "crowded to the doors every night with Cubans, Spaniards, Negroes and white people". In December 1899 Chappelle and Donaldson opened a second theatre, the Mascotte, closer to the center of Tampa. A different reporter said, “These theaters have proven themselves to be miniature gold mines.” His next project

874-558: The Excelsior Hall, it became the first black-owned theater in the South, reportedly seating 500 people. In 1899, following a dispute with the white landlord of the Excelsior Hall, J. E. T. Bowden , who was also the Mayor of Jacksonville , Chappelle closed the theatre and moved to Tampa, where he – with fellow African-American entrepreneur R. S. Donaldson – opened a new vaudeville house,

920-765: The North and South. Though they received good reviews, some Southern white theater owners refused to book them because they did not adhere to common stereotypes. Sherman H. Dudley later took over as producer and lead comedian of this company, followed by Salem Tutt Whitney , who created the Southern Smart Set in the 1910s. Producer Alexander Tolliver also used the name Smart Set in his freewheeling Big Tent variety show, which drew heavily upon developing blues and jazz tunes, and included novelty acts and acrobats. Tolliver's show, with an all black crew, started in 1914 and continued to be popular to black and white audiences until 1930. As

966-626: The Vaudeville era included Ernest Hogan , Bob Cole , Rosamond Johnson , George Johnson , Tom Lemonier , Gussie L. Davis , Chris Smith , Irving Jones , Turner Layton and Henry Creamer . The Hyers Sisters , who began performing in the late 1870s, and Sissieretta Jones , who gave up classic opera to lead a Vaudeville touring company, were pioneers of Black Musical Theater. The jazz pianist and composer Eubie Blake got his start in 1920s Vaudeville, as did Louis Armstrong and other jazz musicians. Notable Black female blues singers who started on

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1012-435: The Vaudeville stage included Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith , Clara Smith , Mamie Smith , Mamie Brown, Ida Cox , and Edmonia Henderson . Another venue for up-and-coming musicians and performers was the circus sideshow. Comedy was one of the mainstays of Vaudeville; singing and dancing acts often incorporated comedy in their routine. Black comedians responded to the prevailing comic Blackface stereotypes by exaggerating them to

1058-557: The Vaudeville stage. A performer named Benjamin Franklin had an act that was described by his minstrel troupe leader, “waltzes with a pail of water on his head and plays the French horn at the same time.” Dance was entertainment that was accepted in almost every act slot on the bill for a Vaudeville show. Tap , with origins in Africa and Europe, was a style that was often seen. Hamboning had been

1104-512: The circuit, booking acts independently; the T.O.B.A. was considered less prestigious. Many black performers, such as Bert Williams , George Walker, Johnson and Dean , Bill "Bojangles" Robinson , Irving Jones , Tim Moore, and Johnny Hudgins , also performed in white vaudeville, often in blackface . Indianapolis Freeman Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include

1150-456: The classically trained, such as operatic soprano Sissieretta Jones , known as "The Black Patti", for black audiences. The association was established following the work of vaudeville performer Sherman H. Dudley . By 1909, Dudley was commonly known as the "Lone Star Comedian" and had begun an attempt to have a black-owned and operated string of venues around the United States. By 1911, Dudley

1196-640: The company in 1906. That year, Chappelle launched a second traveling tent company, the Funny Folks Comedy Company, with performers alternating between the two companies. The business continued to expand, though in August 1908, one of the Pullman Company railroad carriages used by the show burned to the ground in Shelby, North Carolina , while several of the entertainers were asleep. Chappelle quickly ordered

1242-407: The company in 1950, to Earl Hendren of Erwin, Tennessee , who in turn sold it in 1955 to Eddie Moran of Monroe, Louisiana , when it was still trading under Wolcott's name. Records suggest that its last performance was in 1959. As vaudeville became more popular the competition for “the most flashy” act increased. As minstrelsy became less popular other types of movement were created and carried on to

1288-623: The day was the Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA), known among performers of the time as “Tough On Black Actors”. TOBA's management was interracial; Black entrepreneur Sherman H. Dudley laid the groundwork for TOBA in 1912 with his circuit of Black owned theaters, continued managing his part of the TOBA theater circuit and had a position on TOBA's board of directors. T.O.B.A dissolved in 1930; by then "chitlin' circuits" for black entertainers had begun. The name stemmed from

1334-461: The early to mid 1920s. Often referred to by the black performers as Tough on Black Artists (or, by Gertrude "Ma" Rainey , as Tough on Black Asses ), the association was generally known as Toby Time ( Time was a common term for vaudeville circuits). It booked only black artists into a series of theatres on the East Coast and as far west as Oklahoma . T.O.B.A. venues were the only ones south of

1380-534: The entire stage while allowing them to feature “in-one-number” acts performed with the curtain as a backdrop while the set was changed for the following act. This kept audiences entertained - and, importantly, put. Famous tap dancers of the time who are still well-remembered today include Buster Brown and the Speed Kings , Beige & Brown, the Nicholas Brothers and Bill "Bojangles" Robinson . Alice Whitman of

1426-529: The first to create her own solo act in the 1920s, eventually taking it from the Chitlin Circuit to the mainstream. Performers Florence Hines and Andrew Tribble used cross-dressing in their comedy routines. In 1903, the comedic theatrical company The Smart Set , with performer Ernest Hogan and writer/performer Billy McClain , broke with earlier minstrel stereotypes and presented African-Americans as more fashionable and sophisticated, touring throughout

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1472-679: The live entertainment industry grew, actors, singers, comedians, musicians, dancers, and acrobats began to retain agents to book their acts. Booking associations sprung up, serving a middle man role between agents and theater owners. Theaters like the Pekin Theater in Chicago and the Lafayette Theater in New York City were created and managed by Black entrepreneurs for black performers and audiences. The dominant black vaudeville theater circuit of

1518-424: The mid-19th century, it was common in Vaudeville for white performers to perform racist stereotypes of Black Americans, using Blackface , minstrel songs, and coon songs , in their acts. Talented Black Americans saw working in Vaudeville as a more profitable and satisfying alternative than the laboring and domestic jobs that were available to them in the 19th century. Though some early Black performers worked within

1564-399: The point of absurdity, or adding their own, more nuanced authenticity and style. Popular Black comics in Vaudeville included Bert Williams , George Walker , Bob Cole , Ernest Hogan , Billy Kersands , Irving Jones , Charlie Case , Ernie Sunshine Morrison , and the duo Flourney Miller and Aubrey Lyles . Women comedians usually performed as the foil for a male partner; Moms Mabley was

1610-585: The show as a "minstrel show" – a term Chappelle had eschewed – though one member of his company, trombonist Leon "Pee Wee" Whittaker , described him as "a good man" who looked after his performers. Each spring, musicians from around the country assembled in Port Gibson to create a musical, comedy, and variety show to perform under canvas. In his book The Story of the Blues , Paul Oliver wrote: The 'Foots' traveled in two cars and had an 80' x 110' tent which

1656-691: The show into theatres rather than under tents, first in Paterson, New Jersey , and then in Brooklyn, New York . In October 1901, the company launched its second season, with a roster of performers again led by comedian Arthur "Happy" Howe, and toured in Alabama , Mississippi , Georgia and Florida . The show grew in popularity throughout the early years of the century, and played in both theatres and tents. Trading as Chappelle Bros., Pat Chappelle and his brothers, James E. Chappelle and Lewis W. Chappelle, rapidly organised

1702-655: The southeast and southwest, and also to Manhattan and Coney Island . By 1904, the Rabbit's Foot show had expanded to fill three Pullman railroad carriages, and advertiseded as "the leading Negro show in America". For the 1904–05 season, the company included week-long stands in Washington, D.C. , and Baltimore, Maryland . Two of its most popular performers were singing comedian Charles "Cuba" Santana and trombonist Amos Gilliard. Another performer, William Rainey, brought his young bride Gertrude (later known as "Ma" Rainey) to join

1748-526: The stereotypes, using Blackface and writing coon songs themselves, others challenged these stereotypes with irony and humor, or performed and produced acts that were more authentic to their talents and experience. Playing to both white and black audiences, as well as 'mixed' audiences with segregated seating, they were paid less than their white counterparts by national booking agencies and encountered discrimination in lodging and booking. Shows for white audiences were limited to just one Black act per show though

1794-794: The touring shows was melodramatic and farcical, designed to be enjoyed in the moment. African-American Musical Theater Theatre Owners Booking Association Theatre Owners Booking Association , or T.O.B.A. , was the vaudeville circuit for African American performers in the 1920s. The theaters mostly had white owners, though about a third of them had Black owners, including the recently restored Morton Theater in Athens, Georgia , originally operated by "Pinky" Monroe Morton, and Douglass Theatre in Macon, Georgia owned and operated by Charles Henry Douglass. Theater owners booked jazz and blues musicians and singers, comedians, and other performers, including

1840-449: The way for African-American performers. Chappelle (1869–1911) was a black showman from Jacksonville, Florida . He learned the show business ropes from his uncle Julius C. Chappelle , who allowed him to meet Franklin Keith and Edward F. Albee , producers of vaudeville . Pat ended up working for Keith and Albee as a piano player. During his vaudeville debut, he met Edward Elder Cooper who

1886-442: Was a fellow blind pianist, a professional at the age of fourteen, known as “Blind Boone”. John and Tom shared a piano ragtime style of "jig piano". This consisted of the left hand playing the beat of the tuba while the right hand played the fiddle and banjo melodies. This music portrayed slaves dances, including beats at times created by the only instrument they had, their bodies. Other successful Black composers and songwriters of

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1932-543: Was a journalist interested in black entertainment and the first to write a journal about the African-American race in 1891. In 1898, Chappelle organised his first traveling show, the Imperial Colored Minstrels (or Famous Imperial Minstrels), which featured comedian Arthur "Happy" Howe and toured successfully around the South . Chappelle also opened a pool hall in the commercial district of Jacksonville. Remodeled as

1978-426: Was a touring show called A Rabbit's Foot . The difference between this tour and previous ones were the cast was sixty people, and all performers would be comfortable. If a black performer was able to tour in a white circuit, they would not be allowed to sleep in the hotels when they stopped to rest, because the hotels would not allow it. They slept on the bus because it was better than the floor. On Chappelle's tour,

2024-643: Was advertised in a weekly column published in black newspapers, "What's What on the Dudley's Circuit", and by 1914 it included over twenty theaters, "all owned or operated by blacks and as far south as Atlanta." T.O.B.A. was formally established in 1920 by people associated with Dudley's circuit. Its President was Milton Starr, owner of the Bijou Theatre in Nashville ; its chief booker was Sam Reevin of Chattanooga . The organization had more than 100 theaters at its peak in

2070-539: Was based in Washington, D.C. as general manager and treasurer of the Colored Actors' Union , and set up S. H. Dudley Theatrical Enterprises, which began buying and leasing theaters around Washington and Virginia. By 1916, the "Dudley Circuit" had extended into the south and Midwest, enabling black entertainers to secure longer-term contracts for an extended season; this circuit provided the basis for T.O.B.A. His circuit

2116-573: Was raised by the roustabouts and canvassmen, while a brass band would parade in town to advertise the coming of the show...The stage would be of boards on a folding frame and Coleman lanterns – gasoline mantle lamps – acted as footlights. There were no microphones; the weaker voiced singers used a megaphone, but most of the featured women blues singers scorned such aids to volume... The company, by this time known as "F. S. Wolcott's Original Rabbit's Foot Company" or "F. S. Wolcott’s Original Rabbit's Foot Minstrels", continued to perform its annual tours through

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