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126-617: Black Sea Rotational Force began in 2010 with the purpose to form a Security Cooperation Marine Air-Ground Task Force. The forward postured troops' ability to conduct military-to-military engagements with partner nations in Eastern Europe while providing the capacity for rapid crisis response made it an essential year-round mission to U.S. European Command (EUCOM) and their partners in the Eastern European Theater. The biannual rotation of Marines and sailors with BSRF are postured at

252-652: A Fire & MP Station, a Troop Medical Center, a gym and a post exchange facility. The airfield runway can accommodate rotary-wing through C-5 aircraft. The base has a rail connection with side-loading ramps. Training facilities have company -size maneuver training capabilities and include live-fire shooting ranges . The following flying and non-flying units are located at Mihail Kogălniceanu. Air Force General Staff Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) United States Army Europe and Africa (USAREUR-AF) Anti-tank warfare Anti-tank warfare originated during World War I from

378-449: A tandem warhead where the first stage of the warhead activates the reactive armor, and the second stage defeats the shell armor by means of a high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shaped charge . During the Russian invasion of Ukraine , drones and loitering munitions have attacked and destroyed tanks. Anti-tank warfare evolved as a countermeasure to the threat of the tank's appearance on

504-487: A "threat for Bucharest" and warning that the base is "more likely to be among the first targets for retaliatory strikes." The Enhanced Air Policing (eAP) mission was established in 2014 as NATO's response to Russia's annexation of Crimea. Since then several NATO member nations have deployed to the base to participate in this mission: The first deployment to Mihail Kogălniceanu as part of the NATO enhanced Air Policing mission

630-493: A 57 mm QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss light naval gun in the hull barbettes . Hull and track engineering was largely dictated by the terrain —the need to cross wide trenches—although the relationship between ground pressure and soil-vehicle mechanics was not resolved until the Second World War. Turrets were later introduced on medium and light tanks to react to ambushes during the advance. The tank, when it appeared on

756-403: A considerable part of its anti-tank capable cannons. Anti-tank tactics during the war were largely integrated with the offensive or defensive posture of the troops being supported, usually infantry. Most anti-tank tactics depend on the range effectiveness of various weapons and weapon systems available. These are divided as follows: Ground-to-air cooperation was not yet systematic in any army of

882-499: A great diversity, ranging from light tankettes and cavalry tanks to multi-turreted heavy tanks resembling bunkers, all of which had to be considered in training by the anti-tank artillery troops. The development of these doctrines was the most significant influence on the rapid development in anti-tank technology and tactics in the Second World War. Two aspects of how the Second World War commenced helped to delay development of anti-tank warfare: resignation and surprise. After Poland

1008-501: A greater range than the Panzerschreck could manage. The Hungarian 44M "Buzogányvető" was a successful unguided rocket used extensively in the Siege of Budapest . After the war, research on infantry anti-tank weapons continued, with most designers focused on two primary goals: first an anti-tank weapon that could defeat more heavily armored postwar tanks and fighting vehicles, and second

1134-569: A high- velocity jet of metal flowing like a liquid due to the immense pressure (though x-ray diffraction has shown the metal stays solid ) which hydrodynamically penetrates the armor and kills occupants inside. The depth of the penetration, though proportional to the length of the jet and the square root of its density , is also dependent on the strength of the armor. With the development of this new ammunition begun more advanced research into steel manufacturing , and development of spaced armor that caused "jet waver" by detonating prematurely or at

1260-737: A higher velocity L.45 Model 1935 while also making a licensed copy of the German 3.7 cm PaK 36 . However, the Red Army was almost immediately taught a lesson about anti-tank warfare when a tank battalion sent to aid the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War was almost entirely destroyed in an engagement . At this time, the predominant ammunition used against tanks was the armor-piercing kinetic energy shell that defeated armor by direct pressure , spiking or punching through it. During

1386-503: A hospital. The project is divided into four stages, which will be implemented over 20 years. Mihail Kogălniceanu is set to become NATO's biggest airbase in Europe. In June 2022, the Ministry of Defence announced the winners of the first stage of the contract for the base upgrades. Three companies and 22 subcontractors will participate in the works. The state secret-level classified project

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1512-584: A month, to participate in the Resilient Resolve 2016 exercise. Starting from 2022, an ARTEMIS special mission aircraft of the United States Army deployed here for reconnaissance of Eastern Europe. Elements of the French -led Multinational Battlegroup headquartered at Cincu under Mission Aigle are also deployed at the base since 2022. In 2023, an Italian Air Force G550 CAEW was also deployed at

1638-464: A near miss from field artillery or an impact from a mortar could easily disable or destroy the tank: if the fuel tank was ruptured, it could incinerate the tank's crew. A large caliber gun was recognized as a tactical necessity to attack machine gun positions and defeat any infantry field pieces found in the trench lines which could easily disable tank track with the HE ammunition. This was achieved by mounting

1764-460: A pioneering example of taking on heavy enemy armor from a lightweight slow-flying aircraft. Field artillery were often the first ground combat arm to engage detected concentration of troops which included tanks through artillery airborne observers, either in assembly areas (for refueling and rearming), during approach marches to the combat zone, or as the tank unit was forming up for the attack. Conventional artillery shells were very effective against

1890-490: A recoil that was unsustainable by the mechanism or the rifleman. Stick grenades were used to destroy the tracks by individual pioneers, however this required accompanying machine-gunners to first separate the supporting Allied infantry line from the tanks, which proved difficult. Another tactic was to lure the tank beyond the German trench-line, re-establishing it just as the Allied infantry approached. The tank would then be engaged by

2016-466: A staging area for the invasion of, and counter-insurgency efforts in Iraq , operated by the 458th Air Expeditionary Group . During the first three months of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the airport was transited by 1,300 cargo and personnel transports towards Iraq, comprising 6,200 personnel and about 11,100 tons of equipment. The base retains an important role, given added weight by the annexation of Crimea by

2142-572: A surprise attack and delay any attack while the French Army was mobilized. With the relative numerical inferiority between the France and Germany, it was a more effective use of manpower. Within the line, passive anti-tank obstacles were supported by anti-infantry and anti-tank bunkers. After Belgium declared neutrality in 1936, France began work on extending the line along the Belgian border. Improved artillery

2268-548: A total area of around 2,800  ha (6,900 acres ). Geopolitical analyst Dorin Popescu considers it will become a "permanent NATO military structure." and a Romanian Defence Ministry official told Euractiv that as a result of the "decision to expand NATO's military base. Romania will have stronger security guarantees." The project includes building barracks, maintenance hangars, social centers, and two new runways. The military city will include schools, kindergartens, shops, and

2394-468: A two-month deployment as part of the enhanced Air Policing mission. This marked the first Finnish Air Force deployment on a NATO mission since the country's accession to the alliance . In 2009, construction for the new United States Army base on the site of the former 34th Territorial Mechanized Brigade garrison was completed. The Permanent Forward Operating Site (PFOS) operated by the United States

2520-479: A weapon lightweight and portable enough for infantry use. Regular fragmentation grenades were ineffective against tanks, so many kinds of anti-tank grenades were developed. These ranged from hollow charge designs (e.g., the British No. 68 AT Grenade ), to ones that simply contained a lot of explosive (the British No. 73 Grenade ). To increase their effectiveness, some grenades were designed so that they adhered to

2646-629: Is Comandor Nicolae Crețu. The 57th Air Base was first formed as Regimentul 14 Aviație Vânătoare Reactivă , soon to be renamed to Regimentul 172 Aviație Vânătoare , on 15 April 1951 at the Pipera Aerodrome . It was equipped with Po-2 , Yak-11 , Yak-23 and Yak-17 aircraft. The fighter regiment moved to the Mihail Kogălniceanu Aerodrome in 1955, following the escape by seaplane of two aviators from Escadrila 131 Hidroaviație Palazu Mare . On 1 November 1959, it

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2772-626: Is set to finish in almost nine years. Construction began in 2024 on the south side of the future base, where a high-capacity electrical network and access roads are being built. On 11 June 2024, construction started on the first runway of the base after a groundbreaking ceremony attended by the Minister of National Defence, the Deputy Chief of the Defense Staff, the Air Force Chief of Staff, and

2898-444: The 1⁄4-ton, 4×4 'jeep' ), French 25 mm and 47 mm guns, British QF 2-pounder (40 mm) , Italian 47 mm and Soviet 45 mm . All of these light weapons could penetrate the thin armor found on most pre-war and early war tanks. At the start of World War II , many of these weapons were still being used operationally, along with a newer generation of light guns that closely resembled their WWI counterparts. After

3024-431: The 2 Air Expeditionary Wing and 17 Wing Winnipeg . The Canadian mission is part of Operation Reassurance . The first deployment lasted from August to December 2017. On 5 September 2020, Canada's Air Task Force contributed six CF-18s to the eAP mission. In 2022, eight CF-18s were brought to the base. On 3 June 2024, seven Finnish F/A-18 Hornets of 31 Squadron from Rissala Air Base arrived at Mihail Kogălniceanu for

3150-658: The 21st Theater Sustainment Command . In 2016, the Army Support Activity-Black Sea (ASA-Black Sea) was established with the role of supporting the American soldiers deployed at the base as well as those deployed to the Novo Selo Range in Bulgaria . ASA-Black Sea was first part of US Army Garrison Ansbach  [ de ] then moved under US Army Garrison Rheinland-Pfalz  [ de ] . In June 2024,

3276-515: The Barents Sea , the two bombers were intercepted by Russian MiG-29 and MiG-31 fighters but continued on their flight path to Romania, being escorted by Finnish F/A-18s, German Eurofighters and Romanian F-16s until their arrival at Mihail Kogălniceanu. It was alleged to be one of the black sites involved in the CIA 's network of " extraordinary renditions ". According to Eurocontrol data, it has been

3402-629: The Black Sea . On 15 August 2018, four Eurofighter Typhoons of No. 1 Squadron , 135 Expeditionary Air Wing were scrambled to intercept six Russian Su-24 Fencer bombers over the Black Sea. In August 2017, the Royal Canadian Air Force replaced the RAF on the eAP mission with a detachment of four CF-18 Hornet fighters. The personnel belonged to the 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron , and were supported by

3528-465: The Cold War of 1947-1991, the United States, Soviet Union and other countries contemplated the possibility of nuclear warfare. While previous technology had developed to protect the crews of armored vehicles from projectiles and from explosive damage, now the danger of radiation arose. In the NATO countries, little if any development took place on defining a doctrine of how to use armed forces without

3654-721: The Egyptian foreign minister, Ahmed Aboul Gheit , in Cairo , to his ambassador in London . It revealed that the United States had detained at least 23 Iraqi and Afghan captives at a military base called Mihail Kogălniceanu in Romania, and added that similar secret prisons were to be found in Poland , Ukraine , Kosovo , Macedonia , and Bulgaria." The US military base infrastructure includes barracks , DFAC and MWR facilities, an Aid Station as well as

3780-474: The Geballte Ladung ("Bundled Charge") of several stick grenades bound together by pioneers ; early attempts at the small-caliber anti-tank rifles like the bolt-action 13 mm Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr ; 3.7 cm TaK Rheinmetall in starrer Räder-lafette 1916 anti-tank gun on a light carriage which could destroy a tank using large-caliber armor-piercing ammunition issued in 1917 to special commands; and

3906-494: The Mihail Kogălniceanu Airbase , Romania , which enables the continuation of promoting regional stability, increasing interoperability, and building and maintaining enduring partnerships with allied and partner nations. It is an outgrowth of the previous Joint Task Force East , which was planned to be a rotational brigade-sized Army force. In 2010, the first year of the program, more than 100 Marines from across

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4032-536: The North African Campaign . Its experience therefore failed to influence the US Army's anti-tank doctrine prior to 1944. From 1941, German anti-tank tactics developed rapidly as a result of being surprised by the previously unknown Soviet tank designs, forcing introduction of new technologies and new tactics. The Red Army was also faced with a new challenge in anti-tank warfare after losing most of its tank fleet and

4158-827: The Republic of Georgia . BSRF-13 will also conduct community relations and civic action projects in and around the port city of Constanța , e.g., improving schools and hospitals, as well as in Bulgaria, Georgia, and Ukraine. Roughly 500 Marines and sailors from 2nd Battalion, 8th Marine Regiment , 2nd Marine Division were assigned to the 2015 iteration, BSRF-15.1. BSRF-15.1 engaged with more than 20 countries to include: Romania, Bulgaria, Latvia , Slovenia , Azerbaijan, Macedonia, Serbia, Estonia , Kosovo , Georgia, Lithuania , Hungary , Armenia , Czech Republic , Poland , Moldova , Albania, Macedonia, and Bosnia. The military engagements consist of military-to-military familiarization events in

4284-565: The Spanish Civil War , as did the Bofors 37 mm developed in Sweden, and used by many early Second World War combatants. The British Army accepted for service the (40 mm) Ordnance QF 2 pounder , which was developed as a tank gun . The Soviet Red Army after the Russian Civil War also begun a search for an anti-tank gun with a French Hotchkiss 37 mm L.33 tank gun, but soon upgraded this to

4410-579: The Transit Center at Manas in Kyrgyzstan , the United States military transferred processing operations for military deploying to Afghanistan and other locations to the base. The United States Army 21st Theater Sustainment Command and Air Force 780th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron were responsible for US operations there. In July 2018, during the restructuring and modernization of the Romanian Army,

4536-506: The Wehrmacht officers, and the anti-tank guns were incorporated into a system of obstacles that were constructed with the intent to stop an attack by tanks by slowing it down, separating them from supporting infantry (advancing on foot) with machine-gun and mortar fire, and forcing tanks to conduct deliberate head-on assaults with engineer support, or seek a less-defended area to attack. Minefields laid with purpose-designed mines were used for

4662-523: The Winter War , early tanks (such as the T-26 ) being very vulnerable to them, but later tanks required a well-thrown bottle directly over the engine compartment to have any effect at all. On the whole, thrown anti-tank weapons suffered from a variety of drawbacks. In addition to the inherently short range, they required careful aim to be effective, and those that relied on explosive force were often so powerful that

4788-574: The bazooka , anti-tank combat engineering , specialized anti-tank aircraft and self-propelled anti-tank guns ( tank destroyers ). Both the Soviet Red Army and the German Army developed methods of combating tank-led offensives, including deployment of static anti-tank weapons embedded in in-depth defensive positions, protected by anti-tank obstacles and minefields , and supported by mobile anti-tank reserves and by ground-attack aircraft. Through

4914-419: The infantry tactics with which the tanks were intended to cooperate. However, there was no means of communication between the tank's crew and the accompanying infantry, or between the tanks participating in combat. Radios were not yet portable or robust enough to be mounted in a tank, although Morse Code transmitters were installed in some Mark IVs at Cambrai as messaging vehicles. Attaching a field telephone to

5040-537: The lift struts , against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U.S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to successfully take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. His L-4, named Rosie the Rocketeer , armed with six bazookas, had a notable anti-armor success during an engagement during the Battle of Arracourt on September 20, 1944, knocking out at least four German armored vehicles, as

5166-548: The 57th Air Base was re-established and placed under the command of the Air Force Staff. In October 2019, a detachment of 4 IAR 330 L helicopters from the 572nd Helicopter Squadron was sent to participate in the UN mission to Mali . The Carpathian Pumas detachment carried out medical evacuation missions, transport of troops and materials, air patrols, and observation missions. The detachment completed 380 missions until 2020. During

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5292-400: The 57th Fighter Aviation Group. Parts of the U.S. Department of Defense , principally from United States European Command , started to use the base in 1999. The airport and the former military garrison of the 34th Territorial Mechanized Brigade became the first US base to open in Romania. In 2003, it became one of four Romanian military facilities that U.S. military forces have used as

5418-439: The Allied infantry would follow and secure the breach, and the cavalry would exploit the breach in the trench lines by attacking into the depth of German-held territory, eventually capturing the field artillery positions and interdicting logistics and reserves being brought up from the rear areas. Naval crews initially used to operate the installed naval guns and machine guns were replaced with Army personnel who were more aware of

5544-688: The Army Support Activity was transformed into the US Army Garrison Black Sea (USAG Black Sea) of the United States Army Installation Management Command , the ninth US Army Garrison in Europe. As part of Operation Atlantic Resolve , a US Army Light Division is deployed at the base on a nine-month rotation basis. With the reactivation of the US Army V Corps , the unit came under its command. As of 2023,

5670-666: The British Army had abandoned them by 1942 and the Wehrmacht by 1943, while the US Army never adopted the weapon, although the USMC used Boys anti-tank rifles in the Pacific Theater. However, the anti-tank rifle remained in Soviet use during the conflict due to the importance it occupied in its doctrine of anti-tank in-depth defense, first demonstrated during the defense of Moscow and again during

5796-585: The Division comprises an Infantry Brigade Combat Team , and a Sustainment Brigade . Multiple rotary-wing elements from the Regionally Aligned Forces rotation force are also deployed at the base. As of 2024, over 4,500 American soldiers are stationed at Mihail Kogălniceanu. In June 2022, elements of the 101st Airborne Division were deployed at the base. On 30 July 2022, they uncased their colors and conducted an air assault demonstration together with

5922-701: The Finnish Lahti L-39 (which was also used as a sniper rifle during the Continuation War ), the automatic Japanese Type 97 20 mm anti-tank rifle , the German Panzerbüchse 38 , Panzerbüchse 39 , the Polish wz.35 and the Soviet 14.5 mm PTRD and PTRS-41 . By 1943, most armies judged anti-tank rifles to lack combat effectiveness due to the diminished ability to penetrate the thicker armor of new tanks –

6048-570: The First World War was that now an effective anti-tank weapon was available to support the defending infantry. However, the Soviet tanks armed with 45 mm guns easily destroyed the German light tanks. Ironically, in the early 1930s until the Spanish War, German officers were conducting secret testing of a new way of employing tanks, infantry and artillery offensively in the Soviet Union with

6174-455: The Kursk battles. This became particularly true later in the war when the Red Army assumed an almost constant offensive, and anti-tank in-depth defensive deployments were used for protecting flanks of the operational breakthroughs against German tactical counterattacks. By firing on the lighter armored infantry and support vehicles (e.g. artillery tractors ) the anti-tank rifle units helped to separate

6300-638: The LanceRs in 2023, the base hosted the 861st Fighter Squadron of the 86th Air Base. In 2006, the MiGs from Mihail Kogalniceanu took part the Viper Lance 2006 exercise together with F-16 Fighting Falcons of the 22nd Fighter Squadron which were deployed at the base for the duration of the exercise. This was also the first time American F-16 crews trained in Romania. On 1 May 2007, the Mihail Kogălniceanu aerodrome

6426-573: The M36 tank destroyer continued in service, and was used in combat as late as the Korean War . The third, and likely most effective kind of tank destroyer was the unturreted, casemate -style tank destroyer, known by the Jagdpanzer term in German service, or Samokhodnaya Ustanovka in Soviet service for their own designs. These generally featured a heavy gun mounted on an older or then-current tank chassis, with

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6552-512: The Officer Corps , claiming many of the senior proponents of the new doctrine. Anti-tank artillery would be included in mobile tank-led Wehrmacht and Red Army units due to the possibility of encountering enemy tanks in a meeting engagement . The new doctrines of using the tank, were divided into infantry and cavalry schools of thought . The former regarded the tank as a mobile artillery system to be used for infantry support. This suggested that

6678-552: The PTRS-41, the weapons proved too inaccurate at sniping distances (800 m or more), and the recoil too much for effective use of the scopes. The development of light, man-portable, anti-tank weapons increased during the Second World War. Most were based on the Munroe effect which led to the development of the high-explosive shaped charge . These weapons were called high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT). The destructive effect relies fully on

6804-790: The RAF mounted two underwing pod-mounted 40 mm Vickers S cannon on the Hawker Hurricane (as the Mk. IID ), which saw service in North Africa in 1942 and the Hawker Typhoon was given HE rockets though these were more effective against other ground vehicles. From March 1943 the Red Army Air Force produced the more agile Yakovlev Yak-9 T (37 mm cannon) and K (45 mm cannon) bomber interceptor also used for ground attack, with one example of either gun in motornaya pushka mounts attached to

6930-471: The Red Army Air Force fielded the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 armed with a pair of 23 mm cannons and unguided rockets, but armored to enable the pilots to approach German tanks at very low altitude, ignoring small arms, machine-gun and even small anti-aircraft cannon fire that usually provided tanks with protection against the bombers. Il-2s could also carry large numbers of 2.5 kg shaped-charge anti-tank PTAB bombs. To give it more firepower against tanks,

7056-430: The Regiment started receiving MiG-29s . The MiG-29s were assigned to the 2nd and 3rd Squadrons of the Regiment. In July 1995, the 57th Fighter Aviation Regiment was disbanded and replaced by the 57th Air Base, with the 57th Fighter Aviation Group. The group had two MiG-29 squadrons and one MiG-23 squadron. In 2002, the 59th Helicopter Regiment from Tuzla was disbanded and its personnel and equipment were integrated into

7182-448: The Romanian 9th Mechanized Brigade . As of October 2022, about 4,700 soldiers from Fort Campbell were deployed on NATO's eastern flank, 2,400 of which were at the Mihail Kogălniceanu base, marking the first deployment of the 101st Division to Europe in nearly 80 years. In July 2024, the 101st Division completed its rotations and was replaced by the 10th Mountain Division . The United States Marine Corps Black Sea Rotational Force

7308-413: The Russian Federation . The base was disbanded in April 2004, following the retirement of the MiG-29s, becoming an annex to the 86th Air Base . All the MiG-29s remain in open storage at the base. The 863rd Helicopter Squadron remained the only permanent unit of the base. Before it was disbanded, the base also received MiG-21 LanceR fighters with personnel from the 86th Air Base. Until the retiring of

7434-512: The United States deployed to form a Security Cooperation Marine Air-Ground Task Force , primarily based at Romania's Mihail Kogălniceanu International Airport. Black Sea Rotational Force 13 deployed for six months from February to August 2013 as a Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force (SP-MAGTF) and consisted of almost 300 United States Marines and United States Navy sailors primarily from 2nd Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment , 2nd Marine Division . The unit trained with 21 partner nations in

7560-604: The United States' relationships with partner nations in order to collectively address common security challenges in the region. In 2015 the effort included a Combined Arms Company, bringing tanks for training. In late August of that year one-hundred and sixty Marines arrived at the Novo Selo Range in eastern Bulgaria, along with armor, artillery, and reconnaissance vehicles, to train with allied forces. Training will involve anti-tank tactics and other weapons skills and involve three six-month rotations. The Black Sea Rotational Force finished its deployment to Romania in 2018. Following

7686-410: The West. The British were preparing the stop lines and the anti-tank islands to slow enemy progress and restrict the route of an attack. The Red Army however was fortunate in having several excellent designs for anti-tank warfare that were either in final stages of development for production, or had been rejected earlier as unnecessary and could now be rushed into production. The relative ease with which

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7812-575: The Western Front in September 1916, was a surprise to German troops, but not the German General Staff . The French Army Staff was highly critical of the British Army's early fielding of the Mark I vehicles in small numbers because the French trials showed the armored vehicles to be highly unreliable. They judged that large numbers had to be employed to sustain an offensive despite losses to mechanical failure or vehicles foundering in intractable no man's land terrain. These losses, coupled with those from enemy artillery fire, later amounted to as high as 70% of

7938-459: The advantage of a reduced silhouette, allowing the crew to more frequently fire from defilade ambush positions. Such designs were easier and faster to manufacture and offered good crew protection, though the lack of a turret limited the gun's traverse to a few degrees. This meant that, if the TD became immobilized due to engine failure or track damage, it could not rotate its gun to counter opposing tanks, making it an easy target. This vulnerability

8064-411: The air. One solution adopted by almost all European air forces was to use bomb loads for conventional bombers that were composed from small bombs allowing a higher density during bombing. This created a greater chance of causing a direct impact on the thinner top armor of the tank while also having the ability to damage track and wheels through proximity detonation. The first aircraft able to engage tanks

8190-546: The anti-tank role. By the time of the Invasion of Normandy , the British had the 3 in (76 mm) calibre QF 17 pounder , which design had begun before the 6 pounder entered service, in general use which proved to be a highly effective anti-tank gun and was also used on the Sherman Firefly tank, the Archer self-propelled gun , and on the 17-pdr SP Achilles As towed anti-tank cannon guns grew in size and weight, they became less mobile and more cumbersome to maneuver, and required ever larger gun crews, who often had to wrestle

8316-514: The areas of basic infantry skills, communications, logistics, non-lethal systems employment, combat life-saving and emergency first aid techniques, the military decision-making process, and noncommissioned officer and junior officer development. The targeted security cooperation activities with partner-nations in the Black Sea , Balkan , and Caucasus regions enhance professional military capacity and increase interoperability. These engagements, along with several joint-level training exercises bolster

8442-435: The base. On 12 June 2023, two B-1B Lancers of the 7th Bomb Wing stopped at the base for a hot-pit refuel. The aircraft were taking part in the Air Defender 23 exercise. On 21 July 2024, two B-52 Stratofortress bombers arrived at the air base as part of Bomber Task Force 24-4. Operating as the 20th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron , this was the first time Stratofortress bombers operated out of Romania. While flying over

8568-412: The battlefields of the Western Front of the First World War. The tank had been developed to negate the German system of trenches , and allow a return to maneuver against enemy's flanks and to attack the rear with cavalry . The use of the tank was mainly based on the assumption that, once they were able to eliminate the German trench lines with their machine gun and infantry support gun positions,

8694-464: The blocks having the manufacturing letters recessed (vs. raised) cut an imprint of the manufacturing letters into the armor plate—the birth of the shaped-charged explosive which focuses the blast energy caused by an indentation on the surface area of an explosive. Although shaped charges are somewhat more difficult to manufacture, the advantage is that the projectile does not require as high velocity as typical kinetic energy shells, yet on impact it creates

8820-401: The cooperation of the Red Army. In Germany, these developments eventually culminated in tactics that later came to be known as Blitzkrieg , while in the Soviet Union they formed the core of the deep battle operational doctrine. The successful test of the latter was during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol although the Red Army foundered on the Mannerheim Line in 1940, largely due to the purge in

8946-423: The deployment, one helicopter was damaged by a storm while refueling at the UN base in Douentza . Several unidentified unmanned aerial vehicles were detected flying close to the base in April 2024. The drones, determined to be small civilian types, were subsequently brought down with electronic warfare equipment, although no remains were found. The military prosecutor's office started an investigation following

9072-562: The desire to develop technology and tactics to destroy tanks . After the Allies deployed the first tanks in 1916, the German Empire introduced the first anti-tank weapons. The first developed anti-tank weapon was a scaled-up bolt-action rifle, the Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr , that fired a 13.2 mm cartridge with a solid bullet that could penetrate the thin armor used by tanks at that time and destroy

9198-626: The disbanding of the 57th Air Base in 2004. In 2021, the first stage of a 2 billion euro project was launched by the Romanian Armed Forces to modernize and expand the base as a response to the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea . Under this project, approved by the Romanian Government in 2019, plans are to build a small military city, similar to Ramstein Air Base . This project will house around 50,000 NATO troops and civilians, with

9324-419: The divisional 7.7 cm guns brought forward, that would try to disable the tracks with ordinary HE shells (and later AP ammunition). If the crews of the disabled tanks refused to surrender, they were engaged with flamethrowers, or a mortar would be fired on the stricken vehicle until a direct hit was achieved on the top surface, usually resulting in an internal fire. Finally, anti-tank obstacles were prepared on

9450-721: The end of the Black Sea Rotational Force, the Marine Corps deployed to Norway as part of the Marine Rotational Force-Europe, where marines will carry out cold weather and mountain warfare training. RoAF 57th Air Base In 2024, construction began on a project aimed at modernizing and expanding the base. Under the same project, it is planned to build a military city similar to Ramstein Air Base , where more than 10,000 NATO servicemen will live together with their families. The current base commander

9576-545: The engine or ricochet inside, killing occupants. Because tanks represent an enemy's strong force projection on land, military strategists have incorporated anti-tank warfare into the doctrine of nearly every combat service since. The most predominant anti-tank weapons at the start of World War II in 1939 included the tank-mounted gun , anti-tank guns and anti-tank grenades used by the infantry , and ground-attack aircraft . Anti-tank warfare evolved rapidly during World War II , leading to infantry-portable weapons such as

9702-570: The engine's gear reduction unit, that had either one of them firing through a hollow-center propeller shaft. Following Operation Overlord in 1944, the military version of the slow-flying Piper J-3 Cub high-wing light civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, usually used for liaison and artillery-spotting, began to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S. Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to

9828-652: The events. Similar events also occurred over other Romanian air bases since 2022. On the occasion of Her Majesty Margareta , Custodian of the Romanian Crown and Prince Radu 's visit to the base on 17 May 2024, it was announced that the 57th Air Base received the name "Captain Aviator Constantin Cantacuzino", in honor of Romania's top scoring ace of World War II , Prince Constantin "Bâzu" Cantacuzino . The 57th Fighter Aviation Group previously held this honorific name from its establishment in 1995 until

9954-553: The existing 77 mm field guns (such as the 7.7 cm FK 16 ) of the infantry division's artillery regiment were also eventually issued with special armor-piercing (AP) ammunition. With the appearance of Allied tanks, the German Army were quick to introduce new anti-tank defense detachments within the pioneer battalions of the infantry divisions. These were initially issued 13 mm caliber long barrel rifles firing solid shot. However, these suffered from fouling after 2–3 rounds and had

10080-457: The first time, destroying tank tracks, and forcing combat engineers to clear them on foot. Delay meant that Nationalist field artillery could engage the lightly armored Soviet tanks . This meant a change in Republican operational and eventually strategic planning, and a more protracted combat operations, with more casualties at a greater cost. The only change to the German anti-tank tactics of

10206-613: The form of top-attack shells , and shells that were used to saturate areas with anti-armor bomblets . Helicopters could be used as well to rapidly deliver scattered anti-tank mines. Since the end of the Cold War in 1992, new threats to tanks and other armored vehicles have included remotely detonated improvised explosive devices (IEDs) used in asymmetric warfare and weapon systems like the RPG-29 and FGM-148 Javelin , which can defeat reactive armor or shell armor. Both those weapon systems use

10332-408: The gun into position while under heavy artillery and/or tank fire. As the war progressed, this disadvantage often resulted in the loss or destruction of both the antitank gun and its trained crew. This gave impetus to the development of the self-propelled, lightly armored " tank destroyer " (TD). The tank destroyer was usually based on the hull of existing tank designs, using either a gun integrated into

10458-435: The gun pointing forward with a limited degree of traverse. Casemate tank destroyers often had the same amount of armour as the tanks they were based on. The removal of the turret allowed for greater room to mount a larger gun with a larger breech and leave room for crew. Many casemate tank destroyers either originated as, or were dual-purpose vehicles with the duty of a self-propelled gun, which share many (but usually not all) of

10584-522: The head of the Domains and Infrastructures Directorate. The construction of the runway is set to finish in 2027. The news of the base expansion project has caused concern among Russian officials. As early as March 2024, Russian politicians have issued warnings to Romania over the project, with Andrey Klimov , deputy Chairman of the Federation Council Committee on Foreign Affairs, calling it

10710-717: The hull or a fully rotating turret much like that of a conventional tank. These self-propelled (SP) AT guns were first employed as infantry support weapons in place of towed antitank guns. Later, due to a shortage of tanks, TDs sometimes replaced the former in offensive armored operations. Early German-designed tank destroyers, such as the Marder I , employed existing light French or Czech design tank chassis, installing an AT gun as part of an armored, turret-less superstructure. This method reduced both weight and conversion costs. The Soviet Union later adopted this style of self-propelled anti-tank gun or tank destroyer. This type of tank destroyer had

10836-421: The infantry needed to be armed with integral anti-tank weapons. The latter advocated use of tanks in the traditional cavalry way of high-tempo attacks intended to outflank the enemy infantry and sever its communication lines. This approach suggested that the tank was the best anti-tank system, and only limited anti-tank troops were required to accompany them. For this reason the late 30s tank configurations came in

10962-481: The kinetic energy of the explosion rather than the ballistic speed of the round on the damage inflicted to the armor. The effect was also concentrated and could penetrate more armor for a given amount of explosives. The first HEAT rounds were rifle grenades, but better delivery systems were soon introduced: the British PIAT was propelled in a manner similar to the spigot mortar with a blackpowder charge contained in

11088-423: The late 1930s shaped charge ammunition was experimented with that used chemical energy for armor penetration. The shaped charge concept is officially known as the "Munroe Effect" and was discovered by accident decades earlier by Professor Charles E. Munroe at the U.S. Torpedo Station, Providence, RI. Professor Munroe was detonating different manufactured blocks of explosives on a sheet of armor plating and observed

11214-464: The likely approaches by deepening and widening existing ground cratering, the precursors of the anti-tank trench . Finally in early 1917 the 3.7 cm TaK from Rheinmetall was rushed to the frontline, and proved effective in destroying the tanks despite limited elevation and traverse. Lack of consensus on the design and use of the tank after the First World War also influenced the development of its anti-tank countermeasures. However, because Germany

11340-832: The longer term. Because tanks were usually accompanied by infantry mounted on trucks or half-tracked vehicles that lacked overhead armor, field artillery that fired a mix of ground and air-burst ammunition was likely to inflict heavy casualties on the infantry as well. Field guns, such as the Ordnance QF 25 pounder , were provided with armor-piercing shot for direct engagement of enemy tanks. Anti-tank guns are guns designed to destroy armored vehicles from defensive positions. In order to penetrate vehicle armor, they fire smaller caliber shells from longer-barreled guns to achieve higher muzzle velocity than field artillery weapons, many of which are howitzers . The higher velocity, flatter trajectory ballistics provide terminal kinetic energy to penetrate

11466-624: The morale of the infantry by providing a weapon that could actually defeat a tank. Anti-tank rifles were developed in several countries during the 1930s. By the beginning of WW2, anti-tank rifle teams could knock out most tanks from a distance of about 500 m, and do so with a weapon that was man-portable and easily concealed. Although the AT rifle performance was negated by the increased armor of medium and heavy tanks by 1942, they remained viable against lighter-armored and unarmored vehicles, and against field fortification embrasures. Notable examples include

11592-544: The moving/static target's armor at a given range and contact's angle. Any field artillery cannon with barrel length 15 to 25 times longer than its caliber was able also to fire anti-tank ammunition, such as the Soviet A-19 . Prior to World War II , few anti-tank guns had (or needed) calibers larger than 50 mm. Examples of guns in this class include the German 37 mm , US 37 mm (the largest gun able to be towed by

11718-599: The older models of Red Army's tank fleet were destroyed by German anti-tank weapons, using tactics already seen in Spain, once and for all focused Stavka attention on anti-tank warfare as Soviet armies were repeatedly encircled by panzer-led strategic pincer maneuvers. Of the major iconic Soviet weapons of the Second World War, two were made exclusively for anti-tank warfare, the T-34 and the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik . The former

11844-408: The period, but given sufficient warning ground attack aircraft could support ground troops even during an enemy attack in an attempt to interdict the enemy units before they come into tactical combat zone. Various bomb loads can be used depending on what type of tank unit is engaged in at the time or who its accompanying troops are. This is an indirect form of anti-tank warfare where the tanks are denied

11970-548: The rear would become a practice only during the next war. With greater use of tanks by both sides it was realized that the accompanying infantry could be forced to ground by ambush fire, thus separating them from the tanks, which would continue to advance, eventually finding themselves exposed to close-assaults by German infantry and sappers . The early tanks were mechanically rudimentary. The 6-to-12-millimetre (0.24 to 0.47 in) thick armor generally prevented penetration by small arms fire and shell fragments . However, even

12096-474: The region, including Romania, Georgia , Ukraine , Bulgaria , Macedonia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Serbia , Albania , Greece , Azerbaijan , Montenegro , and Croatia . Training evolutions consisted of counterinsurgency and peacekeeping operations, communications, logistics, non-lethal weapons employment, military decision-making processes and non-commissioned officer development. The unit also participated in larger exercises such as Agile Spirit 13 in

12222-529: The same features and layout. Some examples are the German Sturmgeschütz III – the most-produced German armored fighting vehicle of WW II — and the Soviets' SU-100 , itself based on the T-34 tank 's hull and drivetrain. Anti-tank rifles were introduced in some armies before the Second World War to provide infantry with a stand-off weapon when confronted with a tank assault. The intention was to preserve

12348-458: The site of four landings and two stopovers by aircraft identified as probably belonging to the CIA's fleet of rendition planes, including at least one widely used Gulfstream V executive jet N379P, later registered, and more commonly cited, as N44982 . European, but not U.S., media have widely distributed reports of a fax intercepted by Swiss intelligence , datelined 10 November 2005, that "was sent by

12474-692: The standard M4 Sherman tanks, but with more powerful cannon. A 76 mm long-barrel tank cannon was fitted to the Sherman-based M10 GMC and all-new design M18 designs, with the M18 being the fastest-moving American AFV of any type in World War II. Late in 1944, the Sherman-origin M36 appeared, equipped with a 90 mm cannon. With rotating turrets and good combat maneuverability, American TD designs generally worked well, although their light armor

12600-481: The starters during some operations. Deploying small numbers of tanks would therefore cause the Allies to lose the element of surprise , allowing Germans to develop countermeasures. Because the German Army was the only force in need of anti-tank weapons, they were first to develop a viable technology to combat the armored vehicle. These technologies took three ammunition approaches: use of grenades by infantrymen, including

12726-429: The supporting infantry ( panzergrenadiers ) and artillery of the German tanks and so forced the tanks to halt at short distances from the concealed anti-tank guns leaving them exposed to fire from larger, longer ranged anti-tank guns. PTRS-41 semi-automatic anti-tank rifles were also used for sniping since an additional tracer round enabled rapid fire adjustment by the gunner. Although optical sniper scopes were tried with

12852-585: The tailfin assembly, the US bazooka and the German Panzerschreck used rockets, and the German Panzerfaust was a small recoilless gun . The HEAT warhead was retroactively used to give more power to smaller calibre weapons such as in the conversion of the otherwise limited German 37 mm PaK guns to fire a large shell, called Stielgranate 41 , that fitted over the barrel rather than down in it, to

12978-502: The tank – for instance 30 feet (9.1 meters) or less – it might be impossible for the tank crew to see the attacker. Anti-tank tactics developed rapidly during the war but along different paths in different armies based on the threats they faced and the technologies they were able to produce. Very little development took place in UK because weapons available in 1940 were judged adequate for engaging Italian and German tanks during most of

13104-675: The tank either through an adhesive ( sticky bomb ) or with a magnet. The Germans used a magnetic grenade, the Hafthohlladung to ensure that the shaped charge would fire at the optimal 90° angle to the armor. There was also a special type of grenade called the Nebelhandgranaten or Blendkörper ("smoke hand grenades"), which was supposed to be smashed over an air vent and fill the tank with smoke, widely used by both sides in World War II . Molotov cocktails also saw much use, especially in

13230-477: The tank's thinner top armor if fired in appropriate density while the tanks were concentrated, enabling direct hits by a sufficiently powerful shell. Even a non-penetrating shell could still disable a tank through dynamic shock, internal armor shattering or simply overturning the tank. More importantly the tanks could be disabled due to damage to tracks and wheels, and their supporting vehicles and personnel could be damaged and killed, reducing unit's ability to fight in

13356-796: The traditionally defensive role used in the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945), becoming more mobile. This led to the development of improved guided anti-tank missiles , though similar design work progressed in Western Europe and the United States. Both sides in the Cold War also recognized the utility of light anti-tank weapons, and this led to further development of man-portable weapons for use by infantry squads, while heavier missiles were mounted on dedicated missile tank-destroyers , including dedicated anti-tank helicopters , and even heavier guided anti-tank missiles launched from aircraft . Designers also developed new varieties of artillery munitions in

13482-624: The use of tactical nuclear weapons . In the Soviet sphere of influence the legacy doctrine of operational maneuver was theoretically examined to understand how a tank-led force could be used even with the threat of limited use of nuclear weapons on prospective European battlefields. The Warsaw Pact arrived at the solution of maneuver warfare while massively increasing the number of anti-tank weapons. To achieve this, Soviet military theorists such as Vasily Sokolovsky (1897–1968) realized that anti-tank weapons had to assume an offensive role rather than

13608-413: The user had to take cover immediately. Additionally, with hand-thrown grenades, the requirement for the attacker to get close to the tank made the attacker exceptionally vulnerable to counter-attack from the tank (typically by machine gun), or from infantry – mounted or dismounted troops – accompanying the tank. However, if the attacker were very low to the ground, and in very close proximity to

13734-643: The war. By late 1942, the Germans had an excellent 50-mm high-velocity design , while they faced the QF 6-pounder introduced in the North African Campaign by the British Army, and later adopted by the US Army . By 1943 Wehrmacht was forced to adopt still larger calibers on the Eastern Front , the 75 mm and the famous 88 mm guns. The Red Army used a variety of 45 mm, 57 mm , and 100 mm guns, and deployed general-purpose 76.2 mm and 122-mm guns in

13860-437: The well-armoured Soviet T-34 medium and KV heavy tanks were encountered, these guns were recognized as ineffective against sloped armor , with the German lightweight 37 mm gun quickly nicknamed the "tank door knocker" ( German : Panzeranklopfgerät ), for revealing its presence without penetrating the armor. Germany introduced more powerful anti-tank guns, some which had been in the early stages of development prior to

13986-454: The wrong angle to the surface of the main armor. The only significant attempt to experiment in the use of tanks in the late 1920s was that of the British Army's Experimental Mechanized Force that influenced future development of tanks, armored troops and entire armies of both its future enemies and allies in the next war. In Spain, the anti-tank defense of the Nationalists was organized by

14112-548: Was a detachment of four Eurofighter Typhoons of the United Kingdom 's Royal Air Force. The detachment, part of No. 135 Expeditionary Air Wing under the code-named Operation Biloxi , arrived at the air base on 24 April 2017. Until August 2017, these Eurofighters belonging to No. 3 Squadron , conducted over 280 sorties in support of the NATO training operations in the region and one sortie in response to Russian Air Force activity over

14238-605: Was attacked, its allies in the West were resigned to its defeat by a numerically superior Wehrmacht. The little information that was brought out about the conduct of combat during that campaign did nothing to convince either France, Britain or the USSR of the need for improved anti-tank technology and tactics. The reliance on the Maginot Line, and the subsequent surprise of the German offensive left no time to develop existing abilities and tactics in

14364-500: Was breached with tank support during the battles of Cambrai and St. Quentin Canal , although German Command was more impressed by the surprise achieved by the Canadian troops at the Battle of the Canal du Nord . This came to influence their planning in 1940. The Maginot line defenses – up to 25 km (16 mi) deep from the forward positions to the rear line – were intended to prevent

14490-514: Was considered to be the Maginot Line which replaced infantry-filled trenches with artillery-filled bunkers , including casemates housing 37 or 47 mm anti-tank guns, and steel turrets armed with a pair of machine guns and a 25 mm anti-tank gun, although Germany was forbidden to produce tanks. The construction was partially based on the Allied experience with the Hindenburg Line which

14616-651: Was established and took responsibility of the location. In January 2014, Mihail Kogălniceanu Aerodrome changed its organizational structure by assimilating the Mihail Kogălniceanu Administrative Center subordinated to the General Staff of the Land Forces . In 2007 and 2011, the air base hosted the USAF Thunderbirds during the air shows that took place at the airport. With the closure of

14742-620: Was established, with the mission to coordinate the aeronautical activities in the area of responsibility, to ensure the Support of the Host Nation for the armed forces in transit, and to represent the interface between the foreign armed forces that carried out activities on the aerodrome and the public authorities represented locally. On 1 June, the Administrative Center-Mihail Kogălniceanu Airport (Military Unit 01837)

14868-498: Was headquartered at the base from 2010 until 2018, when the Corps was moved to Norway . In 2016, two F-22 Raptors arrived at the base as part of a Rapid Response program training exercise. After a few hours at the base, the F-22s flew back to Great Britain. In March 2016, four CF-188 Hornets of the Royal Canadian Air Force 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron were deployed at the base for about

14994-482: Was intended to become one of the main operating bases of United States Army Europe 's Joint Task Force East (JTF-E), a rotating task force initially to be provided by the U.S. 2nd Cavalry Regiment , which was to eventually grow to a brigade -sized force. The JTF-E concept was reduced to the Army-only Task Force East. Task Force East has since been transformed into Area Support Group Black Sea (ASG-BS) of

15120-415: Was later exploited by opposing tank forces. Late in the war, it was not unusual to find even the largest and most powerful tank destroyer abandoned on the field after a battle, having been immobilized by one high-explosive shell to the track or front drive sprocket. US Army pre-war infantry support doctrines emphasized the use of tank destroyers with open-top fully rotating turrets, featuring less armor than

15246-493: Was no match for enemy tank cannon fire during one on one confrontations. Another disadvantage proved to be the open, unprotected turret, and casualties from artillery fire soon led to the introduction of folding armor turret covers. Near the war's end, a change in official doctrine caused both the self-propelled tank destroyer and the towed antitank gun to fall from favor in U.S. service, increasingly replaced by conventional tanks or infantry level antitank weapons. Despite this change,

15372-444: Was one of the most manufactured tanks in history, and the latter, itself dubbed the 'flying tank', was one of the most manufactured aircraft. The war also saw the creation and almost immediate abandonment of the self-propelled tank destroyer which would be replaced post war by the anti tank guided missile. As tanks were rarely used in conflicts between the two World Wars, no specific aircraft or tactics were developed to combat them from

15498-518: Was renamed to Regimentul 57 Aviație Vânătoare (57th Fighter Aviation Regiment). The name was kept until 1995. The base received MiG-17 fighters in 1960, followed by MiG-21F-13s in 1962. By 1972, the base was equipped only with MiG-21 fighters. In 1979, the first MiG-23s arrived at the base. These equipped the 1st Squadron of the Regiment. The 2nd Squadron converted to the MiG-23 in 1980. From 1989,

15624-598: Was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its military capability, and there were no other challenges to France and Britain, very little development took place in anti-tank warfare until the 1930s. The Interwar period was dominated by the strategic thinking with fortified borders at its core. These included obstacles consisting of natural features such as ditches , streams and urban areas , or constructed obstacles such as anti-tank ditches, minefields , dragon's teeth , or log barriers. The pinnacle of this strategic thinking

15750-500: Was seen as the quickest solution to anti-tank defense, and one of the earliest post-war anti-tank gun designs was the 25 mm Hotchkiss model from France. It was intended to replace an Atelier de Puteaux 37 mm weapon designed in 1916 to destroy machine gun positions. Rheinmetall commenced design of a 37 mm anti-tank gun in 1924 and the first guns were produced in 1928 as 3.7 cm Pak L/45, later adopted in Wehrmacht service as 3.7 cm Pak 36 . It made an appearance during

15876-557: Was the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" using dive bombing to place the bomb close to the target. Some French and German fighters fitted with 20 mm cannon were also able to engage thinner top armor surfaces of the tanks early in the war. The Stuka was also given cannons for anti-armor role though it was obsolete by 1942, and was joined by the Henschel Hs 129 that mounted a podded 30 mm (1.2 in) MK 101 cannon beneath its fuselage, while

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