Kallistratos of Aphidnae ( Ancient Greek : Καλλίστρατος , Latinized: Callistratus; bef. 415–aft. 355 BCE) was an Athenian orator and general in the 4th century BCE.
111-645: Greek colonisation refers to the expansion of Archaic Greeks , particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BC , across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea . The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages , in that it consisted of organised direction (see oikistes ) away from the originating metropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised
222-603: A Greek inscription was discovered in Lumbarda on the eastern tip of the island of Korčula in modern-day Croatia which talks about the founding of another Greek settlement there in the 3rd or 4th century BC, by colonists from Issa. The artifact is known as Lumbarda Psephisma . Evidence of coinage on the Illyrian coast used for trade between the Illyrians and the Greeks can be dated to around
333-752: A city on the northern coast of Africa, founded by the Greeks after the Trojan War . On the north side of the Mediterranean, the Phokaians founded Massalia on the coast of Gaul . Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also founded Alalia in Corsica and Olbia in Sardinia . The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotus,
444-593: A climatic shift that took place between 850 and 750, which made the region cooler and wetter. This led to the expansion of population into uncultivated areas of Greece and was probably also a driver for colonisation abroad. Ancient sources give us little information on mortality rates in archaic Greece, but it is likely that not many more than half of the population survived to the age of 18: perinatal and infant mortality are likely to have been very high. The population of archaic Greece would have consequently been very young – somewhere between two-fifths and two-thirds of
555-569: A conference in Sparta. At this event, three Athenians spoke in an effort to convince the Spartans to accept the peace: Kallias tried to paper over the differences between the two cities; Autokles berated the Spartans for past sins; and Kallistratos, striking a more conciliatory tone, admitted that both sides had made mistakes and they had different interests, but these were no reason to destroy each other in constant war. Making peace sooner rather than later made
666-524: A consequence of in-fighting between rival oligarchs, rather than between the oligarchs and the people. Recently historians have begun to question the existence of a seventh century "age of tyrants". In the archaic period, the Greek word tyrannos , according to Victor Parker, did not have the negative connotations it had gained by the time Aristotle wrote his Constitution of the Athenians . When Archilochus used
777-410: A feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness. The mission always included a leader nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parceled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis. Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during
888-568: A few colonies were founded during the Greek Classical period which included Mesembria (modern Nessebar) by the Megareans in 493 BC. Heraclea Pontica founded Chersonesus Taurica in Crimea at the end of the 5th or early 4th c. BC. The ancient Greek settlement called Manitra of the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea was discovered in 2018. The Greek colonies expanded as far as
999-424: A local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians founded Empuries in this region and later the even more distant Hemeroskopeion . AL1. Nymphaeum AL2. Epidamnos AL3. Apollonia AL4. Aulon AL5. Chimara AL6. Bouthroton AL7. Oricum AL8. Thronion AR1. Gerrha * Pseudo-Scymnus writes that some say that
1110-400: A massive increase in the Greek population and of significant changes that rendered the Greek world at the end of the 8th century entirely unrecognizable from its beginning. According to Anthony Snodgrass , the archaic period was bounded by two revolutions in the Greek world. It began with a "structural revolution" that "drew the political map of the Greek world" and established the poleis ,
1221-501: A series of others in the mid-seventh century BC, such as Orthagoras in Sicyon and Theagenes in Megara. Various explanations have been provided for the rise of tyranny in the seventh century BC. The most popular of these explanations dates back to Aristotle , who argued that tyrants were set up by the people in response to the nobility becoming less tolerable. As there is no evidence from
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#17328481536541332-510: A sign of exceptional wealth. A team of oxen could increase agricultural output significantly but were expensive to maintain. As they had in the Dark Ages, the wealthiest members of Greek society could own large herds of cattle. This pattern had probably developed before the beginning of the period and remained relatively consistent throughout it. The idea that it was preceded by a period of pastoralism and that agriculture only became dominant in
1443-437: A single image or set of images. Some of these were the symbol or image of an important deity in the city or visual puns on the city's name, but in many cases their meaning is obscure and may not have been chosen for any special reason. The reasons for the rapid and widespread adoption of coinage by the Greeks are not entirely clear and several possibilities, which are not mutually exclusive, have been suggested. One possibility
1554-485: A single urban centre – took place in much of Greece in the eighth century BC. Both Athens and Argos , for instance, began to coalesce into single settlements around the end of that century. In some settlements, this physical unification was marked by the construction of defensive city walls, as was the case in Smyrna by the middle of the eighth century BC, and Corinth by the middle of the seventh century BC. It seems that
1665-708: A trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of the Nile , founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of the Persian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C. 2023 archaeological findings in Thonis-Heracleion at Egypt, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend
1776-545: Is a matter of conjecture. Isokrates in On the Peace , written in early 355, makes no mention of his return, thus making that year the earliest it could have been. Lykourgos’ Against Leokrates was written in 330. His comment about younger men having only heard the tale recounted suggests that Kallistratos’ return was not long after 355. The Social War , where Athens was fighting several of its allies, concluded that year and it
1887-561: Is known of his background, though he appears to have been of the liturgical class with interests in commerce rather than agriculture. His father was Kallikratous and he was a nephew by marriage of the Athenian demagogue Agyrrhios , though whose sister married whose brother is unknown. Aphidna was one of the towns of Attica. The earliest mention of Kallistratos was in 379 when the Theban Pelopidas used his name to gain entry to
1998-403: Is that coinage was adopted specifically to enable communities to make payments to their citizens, mercenaries and artisans in a transparent, fair and efficient way. Similarly, when wealthy members of the community were required to contribute wealth to the community for festivals and the equipment of navies, coinage made the process more efficient and transparent. A third possibility, that coinage
2109-403: Is the increased ease of commerce which coinage allowed. Coins were of standardised weights, which meant that their value could be determined without weighing them. Furthermore, it was not necessary for users of coinage to spend time determining whether the silver was pure silver; the fact that the coin had been issued by the community was a promise that it was worth a set value. Another possibility
2220-571: The Colossus of the Naxians from around 600 BC, are known to represent Apollo , while the Phrasikleia Kore was meant to represent a young woman whose tomb it originally marked. Over the course of the sixth century, kouroi from Attica become more lifelike and naturalistic. However, this trend does not appear elsewhere in the Greek world. The genre began to become less common over the last part of
2331-524: The Cycladic Islands in the 540s BC, Southern Italy and Sicily before 525 BC, and Thrace before 514 BC. Most of these coinages were very small and were mostly only used within the community that issued them, but the "turtles" of Aegina (from 530 or 520 BC) and the "owls" of Athens (from 515 BC) were issued in great quantity and exported throughout the Greek world. The images on coins initially changed rapidly, but increasingly each community settled on
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#17328481536542442-629: The Danube delta the Greeks colonised the islet, probably then a peninsula, of Barythmenis (modern Berezan ) which evolved into the colony of Borysthenes in the next century. The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was a Megaran and Boeotian foundation: Heraclea Pontica in 560-550 BC. On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start with Pontic Olbia and Panticapaeum (modern Kerch ). In about 560 BC
2553-632: The Hellespont and Rhaedestus in Propontis . The Samians colonised the island of Samothrace , becoming the source of its name. Finally, the Parians colonised Thasos under the leadership of the oecist and father of the poet Archilochus , Telesicles. In 340 BC, while Alexander the Great was regent of Macedon, he founded the city of Alexandropolis Maedica after defeating a local Thracian tribe. Magna Graecia
2664-599: The Iberian Peninsula and North Africa . In North Africa, on the peninsula of Kyrenaika , colonists from Thera founded Kyrene , which evolved into a very powerful city in the region. Other colonies in Kyrenaika later included Barca , Euesperides (modern Benghazi ), Taucheira , and Apollonia . By the middle of the 7th century, the lone Greek colony in Egypt had been founded, Naukratis . The pharaoh Psammitecus I gave
2775-538: The Mediterranean , the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea . This was not simply for trade, but also to found settlements. These Greek colonies were not, as Roman colonies were, dependent on their mother-city, but were independent city-states in their own right. Greeks settled outside of Greece in two distinct ways. The first was in permanent settlements founded by Greeks, which formed as independent poleis. The second form
2886-678: The Peloponnesian League : by 550, cities such as Elis , Corinth, and Megara were part of the alliance. This series of alliances had the dual purpose of preventing the cities of the League from supporting the Helot population of Messenia, and of helping Sparta in its conflict with Argos , which in the archaic period was along with Sparta one of the major powers in the Peloponnese. In the eighth and seventh centuries BC, Greeks began to spread across
2997-633: The Peloponnesian War , the Athenians with the Hagnon, son of Nikias founded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the current location of the "Hill 133" north of Amphipolis in Serres . Numerous other colonies were founded in the region of Thrace by the Ionians from the coast of Asia Minor . Important colonies were Maroneia , and Abdera . The Milesians also founded Abydos and Cardia on
3108-554: The Teians . On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times as Colchis , today in Georgia and the autonomous region of Abkhazia , the Greeks founded the cities of Phasis and Dioscouris. The latter was called Sebastopolis by the Romans and Byzantines and is known today as Sukhumi . Heraclea Pontica founded Callatis on the southern coast of Romania at the end of the 6th c. BC. Only
3219-515: The archonship had replaced it as the most important executive office in the state, though the archonship could only be held by members of the Eupatridae , the families which made up Athens' aristocracy. The earliest laws of Athens were established by Draco , in 621/0; his law on homicide was the only one to have survived to the Classical period. Draco's law code aimed to replace private revenge as
3330-568: The kouros and kore , near life-size frontal statues of a young man or woman, which were developed around the middle of the seventh century BC in the Cyclades . Probably the earliest kore produced was the Dedication of Nikandre , which was dedicated to Artemis at her temple on Delos between 660 and 650 BC, while kouroi began to be created shortly after this. Kouroi and korai were used to represent both humans and divinities. Some kouroi, such as
3441-553: The 4th century BC and minted in Adriatic colonies such as Issa and Pharos. Although the Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable", according to ancient sources they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies. The colonization of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such as Miletus , Phocaea and Teos . The majority of colonies in the region of
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3552-508: The 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the Ancient Greek world . An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city. Nymphaeum was another Greek colony in Illyria. The Abantes of Euboea founded the city of Thronion at the Illyria . Further west, colonists from
3663-457: The 8th and 6th centuries BC the Athenians, of Ionian lineage, founded Scylletium (near today's Catanzaro ). In Sicily the Euboeans later founded Naxos , which became the base for the founding of the cities of Leontini , Tauromenion and Catania . They were accompanied by small numbers of Dorians and Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonisation. The strongest of
3774-615: The Assembly and the law courts, while the richest class – the pentacosiomedimni – were the only people eligible to become treasurer, and possibly archon. He set up the Council of the Four Hundred , responsible for discussing motions which were to come before the Assembly . Finally, Solon substantially reduced the powers of the archon by giving citizens the right of appeal; their case was judged by
3885-517: The Assembly. A second wave of constitutional reform in Athens was instituted by Cleisthenes towards the end of the sixth century. Cleisthenes apparently redivided the Athenian population, which had previously been grouped into four tribes, into ten new tribes . A new Council of 500 was instituted, with members from each deme represented. Demes were also given the power to determine their own members (which, in turn, provided them with influence over
3996-471: The Athenian and Spartan constitutions seem to have developed into their classical forms. The archaic period saw significant urbanisation and the development of the concept of the polis as it was used in Classical Greece. By Solon 's time, if not before, the word polis had acquired its classical meaning, and though the emergence of the polis as a political community was still in progress at this point,
4107-550: The Black Sea and Propontis were founded in the 7th century BC. In the area of Propontis, the Megarans founded the cities of Astacus in Bithynia , Chalcedonia and Byzantium which occupied a privileged position. Miletus founded Cyzicus and the Phocaeans Lampsacus . On the western shore of the Black Sea the Megarans founded the cities of Selymbria and a little later, Nesebar . A little farther north in today's Romania
4218-565: The Boeotian Federation. Sparta, for its part, chose to punish them for this. What followed a few weeks later was the Battle of Leuktra, which marked the beginning of the end of Spartan military dominance in Greece. The coastal village of Oropos lay in the northwest corner of Attica, next to Boeotia . Control of the area had shifted back and forth between Athens and Thebes for generations, and in
4329-437: The Classical period the city of Athens was both culturally and politically dominant, it was not until the late sixth century BC that it became a leading power in Greece. The attempted coup by Cylon of Athens ( who became tyrant of Athens ) may be the earliest event in Athenian history which is clearly attested by ancient sources, dating to around 636 BCE. At this time, it seems that Athens' monarchy had already ended and
4440-404: The Classical period during the eighth century BC. By the classical period, Spartan tradition attributed this constitution to Lycurgus of Sparta , who according to Thucydides lived a little over four centuries before the end of the Peloponnesian War , around the end of the ninth century. The First Messenian War , probably taking place from approximately 740 to 720 BC, saw the strengthening of
4551-586: The Euboeans in Chalcidice were Olynthos (which was settled in collaboration with the Athenians ), Torone , Mende , Sermyle , Aphytis and Cleonae in the peninsula of Athos . Other important colonies in Chalcidice were Acanthus , founded by colonists from Andros and Potidaea , a colony of Corinth . Thasians with the help of the Athenian Callistratus of Aphidnae founded the city of Datus . During
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4662-546: The Greek city-state Paros in 385 BC founded the colony Pharos on the island of Hvar in the Adriatic, on the site of the present-day Stari Grad in Croatia. In the early 4th century BC the Greek tyrant of Syracus Dionysius I founded the colony Issa on the modern-day island of Vis , and traders from Issa then went on to found emporia in Tragurion ( Trogir ) and Epetion ( Stobreč ) on the Illyrian mainland in 3rd century BC. In 1877
4773-671: The Greeks' strong connection to the sea. The Greeks started colonising around the beginning of the 8th century BC when the Euboeans founded Pithecusae in Southern Italy and Olynthus in Chalcidice , Greece. Subsequently, they founded the colonies of Cumae , Zancle , Rhegium and Naxos . At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of the Lelantine War but colonial foundation continued by other Greeks such as
4884-622: The Ionians and Corinthians. The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy, Thrace and on the Black Sea . Thera founded Cyrene and Andros , and Samos founded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean. Numerous colonies were founded in Northern Greece , chiefly in the region of Chalcidice but also in the region of Thrace . Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of
4995-608: The Milesians founded Odessa in the region of modern Ukraine . On the Crimean peninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls") they founded likewise the cities of Sympheropolis , Nymphaeum and Hermonassa . On the Sea of Azov (Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they founded Tanais (in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine and Phanagoria , the last being a colony of
5106-475: The Milesians founded the cities of Histria , Argame and Apollonia . In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony was Sinope which according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus some time around the middle of the 7th century BC. Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region: Trebizond , Cerasus , Cytorus , Cotyora , Cromne, Pteria , Tium , etc. Further north from
5217-604: The Mycenaean period. Life-size human sculpture in hard stone began in Greece in the archaic period. This was inspired in part by ancient Egyptian stone sculpture : the proportions of the New York Kouros exactly correspond to Egyptian rules about the proportion of human figures. In Greece, these sculptures best survive as religious dedications and grave markers, but the same techniques would have also been used to make cult images. The best-known types of archaic sculpture are
5328-523: The Near East. At the beginning of the seventh century BC, vase painters in Corinth began to develop the black-figure style . At the same time, potters began to use incisions in the clay of vases in order to draw outlines and interior detailing. This adoption of incision, probably taken from eastern metalwork, allowed potters to show fine details of their decorations. Callistratus of Aphidnae Little
5439-434: The Peloponnesian War . By contrast, no such evidence survives from the archaic period. Surviving contemporary written accounts of life in the period are in the form of poetry. Other written sources from the archaic period include epigraphical evidence, including parts of law codes, inscriptions on votive offerings and epigrams inscribed on tombs. However, none of that evidence is in the quantity for which it survives from
5550-437: The Sicilian colonies was Syracuse , an 8th-century BC colony of the Corinthians. Refugees from Sparta founded Taranto which evolved into one of the most powerful cities in the area. Megara founded Megara Hyblaea and Selinous ; Phocaea founded Elea ; Rhodes founded Gela together with the Cretans and Lipari together with Cnidus ; the Locrians founded Epizephyrean Locris . According to legend, Lagaria which
5661-459: The Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony of Himera . Likewise, Naxos, which founded many colonies while Sybaris founded the colony of Poseidonia . Gela founded its own colony, Acragas . With colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy with its dialects of the Ancient Greek language , its religious rites, and its traditions of the independent polis . An original Hellenic civilization soon developed, and later interacted with
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#17328481536545772-420: The aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, or apoikiai ( Greek : ἀποικία , transl. "home away from home" ), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strong Greek city-states , functioning independently of their metropolis . The reasons for the Greeks to establish colonies were strong economic growth with the consequent overpopulation of the motherland, and that
5883-421: The archaic period saw the development of the polis (or city-state) as the predominant unit of political organisation. Many cities throughout Greece came under the rule of autocratic leaders, called " tyrants ". It also saw the development of law and systems of communal decision-making, with the earliest evidence for law codes and constitutional structures dating to the period. By the end of the archaic period, both
5994-413: The archaic period, the region of Messenia was brought under Spartan control, helotage was introduced and the Peloponnesian League was founded and made Sparta a dominant power in Greece. The word archaic derives from the Greek word archaios , meaning 'old', and refers to the period in ancient Greek history before the classical period. The archaic period is generally considered to have lasted from
6105-418: The archaic period. Farms appear to have been small, cohesive units, concentrated near settlements. They were highly diversified, growing a wide variety of crops simultaneously, in order to make consistent use of human resources throughout the year and to ensure that the failure of any one crop was not too much of a disaster. Crop rotation was practiced, with fields left fallow every other year. Though wheat
6216-411: The area. By the end of the eighth century BC, Greek settlements in southern Italy were also well established. In the seventh century, Greek colonists expanded the areas that they settled. In the west, colonies were founded as far afield as Marseilles . In the east, the north Aegean, the Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea all saw colonies founded. The dominant coloniser in these parts was Miletus . At
6327-426: The average house size remained constant around 45–50 m , but the number of very large and very small houses increased, indicating increasing economic inequality. From the end of the seventh century, this trend reversed, with houses clustering closely around a growing average, and by the end of the archaic period the average house size had risen to about 125 m . Not all arable land in Greece was yet under cultivation in
6438-508: The beginning of the 8th century BC until the beginning of the 5th century BC, with the foundation of the Olympic Games in 776 BC and the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC forming notional starting and ending dates. The archaic period was long considered to have been less important and historically interesting than the classical period and was studied primarily as a precursor to it. More recently, archaic Greece has come to be studied for its own achievements. With this reassessment of
6549-443: The beginning of the archaic period, coinage had not yet been invented. The Greeks measured the value of objects or fines using certain valuable objects, such as oxen, tripods, and metal spits, as units of account . As in the Near East, precious metal bullion was used as a medium of exchange , principally gold at first, but mainly silver by the beginning of the sixth century. The weight of this bullion (often known as hacksilber )
6660-627: The city of Bizone belongs to the barbarians, while others to be a Greek colony of Mesembria . BUL1. Mesembria BUL2. Odessos BUL3. Apollonia / Antheia BUL4. Agathopolis BUL5. Kavarna BUL6. Pomorie BUL7. Naulochos BUL8. Krounoi BUL9. Pistiros BUL10. Anchialos BUL11. Bizone * BUL12. Develtos BUL13. Heraclea Sintica BUL14. Beroe C1. Salona C2. Tragyrion C3. Aspálathos C4. Epidaurus C5. Issa C6. Dimos C7. Pharos C8. Kórkyra Mélaina C9. Epidaurum C10. Narona C11. Lumbarda C.12 Εpetion CY1. Chytri CY2. Kyrenia CY3.Golgi Archaic Greece Archaic Greece
6771-451: The city. Similar to the emporion established in the Nile Delta it is possible there was a Greek trading colony established by the Euboians along the Syrian coast on the mouth of the Orontes river at the site Al-Mina in the early 8th century BC. The Greek colony of Posideion on the promontory Ras al-Bassit was colonised just to the south of the Orontes estuary later in the 7th century BC. Diodorus Siculus mentions Meschela (Μεσχέλα),
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#17328481536546882-651: The classical period. What is lacking in written evidence is made up for in the rich archaeological evidence from the archaic Greek world. Indeed, although much knowledge of Classical Greek art comes from later Roman copies, all surviving archaic Greek art is original. Other sources for the archaic period are the traditions recorded by later Greek writers such as Herodotus . However, those traditions are not part of any form of history that would be recognised today. Those transmitted by Herodotus were recorded whether or not he believed them to be accurate. Indeed, Herodotus did not even record any dates before 480 BC. Politically,
6993-417: The course of the archaic period is not supported by the archaeological or literary evidence. No technological innovations in agriculture appear to have occurred, except possibly the increased use of iron tools and more intensive use of manure . The main source for the practice of agriculture in the period is Hesiod 's Works and Days , which gives the impression of very small subsistence holdings in which
7104-410: The distinctively Greek city-states, and it ended with the intellectual revolution of the Classical period. The archaic period saw developments in Greek politics, economics, international relations, warfare and culture. It laid the groundwork for the Classical period, both politically and culturally. It was in the archaic period that the Greek alphabet developed, the earliest surviving Greek literature
7215-401: The earliest red-figure vases . The early part of the archaic period saw distinctive orientalizing influences, both in pottery and in sculpture. At the beginning of the archaic period, Greek sculpture mostly consisted of small bronze works, particularly of horses. Bronze human figures were also produced, and both horse and human figures are primarily found in religious sanctuaries. Towards
7326-427: The early part of the ninth century BC, but did not become common on mainland Greek pottery until the middle of the eighth century BC. The eighth century saw the development of the orientalizing style , which signalled a shift away from the earlier geometric style and the accumulation of influences derived from Phoenicia and Syria . This orientalizing influence seems to have come from goods imported to Greece from
7437-411: The east as early as the first half of the eighth century, and the earliest pottery from the Greek islands found at Al Mina in modern Syria is from Euboea. By the sixth century, Greece was part of a trade network spanning the entire Mediterranean. Sixth century Laconian pottery has been found as far afield as Marseilles and Carthage to the west, Crete to the south and Sardis to the East. At
7548-418: The eighth century as the growth of the population increased the number of workers available, and intensified in the seventh century with the development of legally enforced debts and the status of the labourers increasingly becoming a source of social strife. By the late eighth century BC, the archaic Greek world had become involved in an active trade network around the Aegean. It was this trade network that
7659-403: The end of the eighth century, horse figurines became much less common, disappearing "almost completely" by 700 BC. In the seventh century, Greek sculpture saw a strong Eastern influence, with mythical creatures such as griffins and sirens becoming much more popular. Also in the seventh century BC, Greek sculpture began to directly represent gods, a practice which had disappeared after the end of
7770-412: The evolution of the polis as a socio-political structure, rather than a simply geographical one, can be attributed to this urbanisation, as well as a significant population increase in the eighth century. These two factors created a need for a new form of political organisation, as the political systems in place at the beginning of the archaic period quickly became unworkable. Though in the early part of
7881-491: The exact meaning of horoi is unknown; their removal seems to have been part of the problem of hektemoroi – another word whose meaning is obscure. Solon was also credited with abolishing slavery for debtors, and establishing limits on who could be granted Athenian citizenship. Solon instituted radical constitutional reform, replacing noble birth as a qualification for office with income. The poorest – called thetes – could hold no offices, although they could attend
7992-403: The first and only response of an individual to an offence committed against them. The law code of Draco, however, failed to prevent the tensions between the rich and poor which were the impetus to Solon's reforms. In 594/3 BC, Solon was appointed " archon and mediator". Exactly what his reforms consisted of is uncertain. He claimed to have taken up the horoi to set the land free, but
8103-622: The home of his rival Leontidas in order to assassinate him. This was the opening gambit in the anti-Spartan party's campaign to retake control of the Theban government and expel the Spartan garrison occupying the Kadmeia . Their success led directly to the Boeotian War (379–75). It is unclear whether Kallistratos was actually involved in the plot or what his name was supposed to mean to Leontidas. He
8214-526: The island of Thasos to see his son-in-law Timomachos, who was in charge of the Athenian garrison there. The trierarch Apollodoros refused, since it was against the law for him to harbor or aid an exile. Kallistratos eventually did make it to Thasos and from there, in c. 360, was instrumental in helping the Thasians found a colony at Datos, across the strait in Thrace in the territory of Edonia. The city
8325-612: The isle of Ischia ), the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, founded Cumae nearby, their first colony on the mainland, and then in the Strait of Messina, Zancle in Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast, Rhegium . The second wave was of the Achaeans who concentrated initially on the Ionian coast ( Metapontion , Poseidonia , Sybaris , Kroton ), shortly before 720 BC. At an unknown date between
8436-460: The land of these Greek city states could not support a large city. The areas that the Greeks would try to colonise were hospitable and fertile. The founding of the colonies was consistently an organised enterprise by the metropolis (mother city), although in many cases it collaborated with other cities. The place to be colonised was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create
8547-511: The laws, came back and taking refuge at the altar of the Twelve Gods was none the less put to death by the state, and rightly so, for "fair treatment by the laws" is, in the case of wrongdoers, punishment. And thus the god, too, acted rightly in allowing those who had been wronged to punish the offender. For it would be an unseemly thing if revelations made to good men were the same as those vouchsafed to malefactors. The date of his return to Athens
8658-399: The membership of the citizen body more generally) and to somewhat determine their own judicial arrangements. These reforms gave the citizen body a sense of responsibility for what happened in the community for the first time. Between the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes, the Athenian constitution had become identifiably democratic . Sparta's constitution took on the form it would have in
8769-503: The mid-fifth century BC. Archaic Greece from the mid-seventh century BC has sometimes been called an "Age of Tyrants". The word τύραννος ( tyrannos , whence the English 'tyrant') first appeared in Greek literature in a poem of Archilochus , to describe the Lydian ruler Gyges . The earliest Greek tyrant was Cypselus , who seized power in Corinth in a coup in 655 BC. He was followed by
8880-444: The most sense. Kallistratos’ arguments convinced the Spartans and peace was agreed – on the condition that each combatant withdraw its garrisons from all the cities where they were stationed so that all cities could be autonomous. Armies and navies would be dissolved. If any city violated the treaty, anyone could go to war with them, but others were not required to join in. Thebes, once again, chose not to sign if they could not sign for
8991-762: The native Italic civilisations. One of the most important cultural transplants was the Chalcidean / Cumaean variety of the Greek alphabet which was adopted by the Etruscans ; the Old Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into the Latin alphabet , which became the most widely used alphabet in the world. The region of the Ionian Sea and that of Illyria were colonised strictly by Corinth . The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on
9102-441: The owner performed most of the labour personally; close reading reveals that much of the produce is to be sold for profit, much of the work to be performed by slaves ( douloi or dmoes ), and much of the owner's time to be spent away from the farm. Slaves' labour was supplemented by labourers who worked for a wage, as sharecroppers (called hektemoroi at Athens), or to pay off debts; this practice seems to have increased in
9213-468: The period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to
9324-424: The polis as an urban centre was a product of the eighth century. However, the polis did not become the dominant form of socio-political organisation throughout Greece in the archaic period, and in the north and west of the country it did not become dominant until some way into the Classical period. The urbanisation process in archaic Greece known as " synoecism " – the amalgamation of several small settlements into
9435-413: The population might have been under 18. By contrast, probably less than one in four people were over 40, and only one in 20 over the age of 60. Evidence from human remains shows that the average age at death increased over the archaic period, but there is no clear trend for other measures of health. The size of houses gives some evidence for prosperity within society; in the eighth and seventh centuries,
9546-529: The powers of the Gerousia against the assembly , and the enslavement of the Messenian population as Helots . Around the same time, the ephors gained the power to restrict the actions of the kings of Sparta. Thus by the late seventh century, Sparta's constitution had recognisably taken on its classical form. From around 560 BC, Sparta began to build a series of alliances with other Greek states, which became
9657-421: The same period. The Greek population doubled during the eighth century, resulting in more and larger settlements than previously. The largest settlements, such as Athens and Knossos, might have had populations of 1,500 in 1000 BC; by 700 they might have held as many as 5,000 people. This was part of a wider phenomenon of population growth across the Mediterranean region at this time, which may have been caused by
9768-547: The same time, early colonies such as Syracuse and Megara Hyblaea began to themselves establish colonies. In the west, Sicily and southern Italy were some of the largest recipients of Greek colonisers. So many Greek settlements were founded in southern Italy that it was known in antiquity as Magna Graecia – "Great Greece". In the last quarter of the eighth century, new Greek settlements were founded in Sicily and southern Italy at an average rate of one every other year, and Greek colonists continued to found cities in Italy until
9879-508: The sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth included Leucada , Astacus , Anactoreum , Actium , Ambracia , and Corcyra - all in modern-day western Greece. The Corinthians also founded important colonies in Illyria , which evolved into important cities, Apollonia and Epidamnus , in present-day Albania. The fact that about
9990-407: The significance of the archaic period, some scholars have objected to the term archaic because of its connotations in English of being primitive and outdated. No term which has been suggested to replace it has gained widespread currency, however, and the term is still in use. Much evidence about the Classical period of ancient Greece comes from written histories, such as Thucydides 's History of
10101-406: The situation could be resolved diplomatically. When Thebes refused to cede control, the two men were brought up on charges. The specifics are not clear, but in ancient Athens anyone could sue anyone for almost anything. The eloquence of Kallistratos at the trial convinced the jury to acquit them, and in the process inspired a young Demosthenes to embark on a career in oratory. In 362/1 Kallistratos
10212-552: The sixth century as the elites who commissioned kouroi declined in influence, and by around 480 kouroi were no longer made. The period saw a shift in the decoration of Greek pottery from abstract to figurative styles. During the Greek Dark Ages , following the fall of the Mycenaean civilisation , Greek pottery decoration had been based around increasingly elaborate geometrical patterns. Human figures first appeared on Greek pots in Crete in
10323-467: The sixth century due to the trade with Asia and Egypt. Of the mainland cities, those on the coast were the biggest recipients of trade from the east, especially Corinth. In the early part of the archaic period, Athens does not seem to have been particularly actively involved in this eastern trade, and very few examples of eastern imports have been found in Athens from the eighth or early seventh centuries. By contrast, nearby Euboea had trade-links with
10434-436: The time that the nobility were becoming increasingly arrogant during the period, modern explanations of seventh century tyranny have tried to find other reasons for unrest among the people. For example, Robert Drews argues that tyrannies were set up by individuals who controlled private armies and that early tyrants did not need the support of the people at all, whilst N.G.L. Hammond suggests that tyrannies were established as
10545-458: The trial and this helped secure his acquittal. His treasurer and confidential agent Antimachos, however, was found guilty, condemned to death, and had his property confiscated by the state. The next year Iphikrates was chosen to complete the same mission and he chose Kallistratos and Chabrias to accompany him as co-commanders. In 371, after more years of fighting, Athens sought once again to negotiate peace with Sparta and invited Thebes to attend
10656-543: The word tyrant, it was synonymous with anax (an archaic Greek word meaning 'king'). Parker dates the first use of the word tyrannos in a negative context to the first half of the sixth century, at least fifty years after Cypselus took power in Corinth. It was not until the time of Thucydides that tyrannos and basileus ('king') were consistently distinguished. Similarly, Greg Anderson has argued that archaic Greek tyrants were not considered illegitimate rulers, and cannot be distinguished from any other rulers of
10767-476: The year of 366 was an Athenian territory. Certain exiles from the village had induced Themison , tyrant of Eretria in Euboea , to take control so they could return. Athens sent out a regiment commanded by Chares to take it back, but by the time it got there, Thebes had stepped in and taken it for themselves. In the later Assembly debate over to what to do, Kallistratos and Chabrias advised restraint, expecting that
10878-420: Was adopted as an expression of a community's independence and identity, seems to be anachronistic. In the visual arts, the archaic period is characterised by a shift towards representational and naturalistic styles. It was the period in which monumental sculpture was introduced to Greece, and in which Greek pottery styles went through great changes , from the repeating patterns of the late geometric period to
10989-482: Was already a force in Athenian politics, though, and the next year, after the aborted invasion of Attica by the Spartan Sphodrias , he was elected strategos along with Timotheos and Chabrias . In 375, during the negotiations that led to the peace treaty ending the war, he is recorded as trying to convince the Theban delegation to give up their dream of uniting the cities of Boeotia in a federation. In this he
11100-520: Was between Thurii and the river Sinni River was founded by Phocians . Evidence of frequent contact between the Greek settlers and the indigenous peoples comes from Timpone Della Motta which shows influence of Greek style in Oneotroian pottery. Many cities in the region became in turn metropoleis for new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city of Camarina in the south of Sicily; or
11211-445: Was composed, monumental sculpture and red-figure pottery began in Greece and the hoplite became the core of Greek armies. In Athens , the earliest institutions of democracy were implemented under Solon , and the reforms of Cleisthenes at the end of the archaic period brought in Athenian democracy as it was during the Classical period. In Sparta , many of the institutions credited to the reforms of Lycurgus were introduced during
11322-495: Was in what historians refer to as emporia ; trading posts which were occupied by both Greeks and non-Greeks and which were primarily concerned with the manufacture and sale of goods. Examples of this latter type of settlement are found at Al Mina in the east and Pithekoussai in the west. The earliest Greek colonies were on Sicily . Many of these were founded by people from Chalcis , but other Greek states, such as Corinth and Megara were also responsible for early colonies in
11433-509: Was indicted again, but whether it was a renewal of the earlier charge or a new offense is not clear. In this case, he chose exile over trial and was condemned to death in absentia. He made his way to Methone , a seaport in Makedonia, ruled at that time by Perdikkas III. While there he arranged to have the harbor dues doubled from twenty talents to forty. Demosthenes reported that while there he sought passage on an Athenian warship from Methone to
11544-574: Was measured using standard units, named for their value in terms of metal spits ( obeloi ) and handfuls ( drachmai ) of metal spits; these terms would later be used as names for Greek coin denominations. Coinage was invented in Lydia around 650 BC. It was quickly adopted by Greek communities in western Asia Minor, although the older system of bullion remained in use as well. The island of Aegina began to issue its distinctive "turtle" coins before 550 BC, and from there coinage spread to Athens, Corinth and
11655-583: Was not provided with the funds to pay his sailors and troops. So he spent most of the summer sailing season in the Aegean trying to make up for the shortages. He was unsuccessful in this, though he gained new allies for Athens in the process. He returned to Athens without fulfilling his mission. For this Kallistratos and Iphikrates prosecuted him, but the specific charges are unclear. Demosthenes reports that two heads of state, Alketas of Makedon and Jason of Pherai ( Thessaly ) came to Athens to support him at
11766-602: Was preferred, in some parts of Greece barley was the staple grain; where wheat was grown it was durum rather than bread wheat. Alongside these, farmers cultivated pulses, vines, olives, fruit, and vegetables. Olives and grapes, which could be turned into oil and wine respectively, served as cash crops ; farmers who cultivated land near population centres could also sell soft fruits and leafy vegetables at market. Livestock were of secondary importance. Sheep and goats, in particular, were kept for meat, milk, wool, and fertiliser, but they were difficult to sustain and large herds were
11877-427: Was renamed Krenides and was later taken over by Philip II, who renamed it Philippi. From the orator Lykourgos we learn Kallistratos' ultimate fate: Who does not know the fate of Kallistratos, which the older among you remember and the younger have heard recounted, the man condemned to death by the city? How he fled and later, hearing from the god at Delphi that if he returned to Athens he would have fair treatment by
11988-537: Was the name given by the Romans to the coastal areas of Southern Italy in the present-day Italian regions of Calabria , Apulia , Basilicata , Campania and Sicily which were extensively settled by Greeks. Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC. The first great migratory wave directed towards the western Mediterranean was that of the Euboeans aimed at the Gulf of Naples who, after Pithecusae (on
12099-470: Was the period in Greek history lasting from c. 800 BC to the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, following the Greek Dark Ages and succeeded by the Classical period . In the archaic period, Greeks settled across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea : by the end of the period, they were part of a trade network that spanned the entire Mediterranean. The archaic period began with
12210-435: Was the source of the orientalizing influence on Greek art in the early part of the archaic period. Meanwhile, to the west, trade between Corinth and Magna Graecia in Southern Italy and Sicily was booming. The eastern trade mainly involved the Greek islands, with Aegina , for instance, acting as an intermediary between the east and the Greek mainland. East Greek states would go on to become extremely prosperous through
12321-482: Was unsuccessful and Thebes was the only city involved in the war not to sign the treaty. This, of course, meant that the war was to continue, since Thebes would not give up on the Boeotian Federation and Sparta would not accept its existence. In 373, Timotheos was commissioned by Athens to take a fleet to the island of Kerkyra to protect it from a Spartan takeover. His ships were undermanned, however, and he
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