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106-455: Unlike animal shelters , sanctuaries do not seek to place animals with individuals or groups, instead maintaining each animal until their natural death (either from disease or from other animals in the sanctuary). However, they can offer rehoming services, which can include veterinarians' help. In some cases, an establishment may have characteristics of both a sanctuary and a shelter; for instance, some animals may be in residence temporarily until

212-459: A low kill shelter euthanizes few animals and usually operates programs to increase the number of animals that are released alive. A shelter's live release rate is the measure of how many animals leave a shelter alive compared to the number of animals they have taken in. A no kill shelter practices a very strict high live release rate, such as 90%, 95%, or even 100%. Since there is no standard of measurement, some shelters compare live releases to

318-514: A pet store chain in Atlanta . It provided for the licensing and regulation of pet shops, stables, kennels, and animal shelters, and it established, for the first time, minimum standards of care. The Georgia Department of Agriculture was tasked with licensing animal shelters and enforcing the new law through the Department's newly created Animal Protection Division. An additional provision, added in 1990,

424-405: A prejudice (defined as "any attitude, emotion, or behaviour toward members of a group, which directly or indirectly implies some negativity or antipathy toward that group"), then laypeople may be aware of a connection between it and other forms of "traditional" prejudice. Research suggests laypeople do indeed tend to infer similar personality traits and beliefs from a speciesist that they would from

530-512: A collection of essays on animal rights edited by philosophy graduate students Stanley and Roslind Godlovitch and John Harris, who were also members of the Oxford Group. Ryder wrote: In as much as both "race" and "species" are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance, an analogy can be made between them. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago,

636-589: A dramatic drop in the number of animals euthanized in shelters, due mainly to a successful push to promote spaying and neutering of pets. Speciesist Speciesism ( / ˈ s p iː ʃ iː ˌ z ɪ z ə m , - s iː ˌ z ɪ z -/ ) is a term used in philosophy regarding the treatment of individuals of different species. The term has several different definitions. Some specifically define speciesism as discrimination or unjustified treatment based on an individual's species membership, while others define it as differential treatment without regard to whether

742-408: A good home is found and others may be permanent residents. The mission of sanctuaries is generally to be safe havens, where the animals receive the best care that the sanctuaries can provide. Animals are not bought, sold, or traded, nor are they used for animal testing . Additionally, no parts of nor secretions from the animals are commodified, such as eggs, wool, or milk. The resident animals are given

848-756: A great deal of procapitalist and speciesist ideology. The devalued status of other animals is deeply ingrained; animals appear in schools merely as caged "pets," as dissection and vivisection subjects, and as lunch. On television and in movies, the unworthiness of other animals is evidenced by their virtual invisibility; when they do appear, they generally are marginalized, vilified, or objectified. Not surprisingly, these and numerous other sources of speciesism are so ideologically profound that those who raise compelling moral objections to animal oppression largely are dismissed, if not ridiculed. Some scholars have argued that all kinds of animal production are rooted in speciesism, reducing animals to mere economic resources. Built on

954-409: A human being is often used as an argument against discrimination on the grounds of race or sex, whereas racism and sexism are seldom deployed to counter discrimination. Williams also stated in favour of speciesism (which he termed 'humanism'), arguing that "Why are fancy properties which are grouped under the label of personhood "morally relevant" to issues of destroying a certain kind of animal, while

1060-650: A large population of their kind and can be easily overwhelmed or agitated. Because of this, they can be held for a certain amount of time before being admitted to the general public. In this time, veterinarians study the new animal's behavioral and dietary habits and try for a smooth transition into the sanctuary's environment. Also, some species of animals, dogs for example, are social creatures. In isolation they get lonely and become depressed. Animal sanctuaries often accommodate these types of animals by putting them in living quarters where they're in groups or pairs that they fit well with. Enrichment activities are also available for

1166-462: A location. The need for cetacean sanctuaries is  quickly emerging due to shifting regulations and changes in public attitudes toward cetaceans in captivity. With an estimated 3,600 cetaceans in captivity globally, the need for spacious natural ocean environments that provide feeding and care is increasing, as globally marine parks and aquariums move away from whales and dolphins in their facilities. A primary criticism of commercial facilities

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1272-439: A man kidnapping and killing a woman but would regard a hawk capturing and killing a marmot with awe and criticise anyone who tried to intervene. Maclean thus suggests that morality only makes sense under human relations, with the further one gets from it, the less it can be applied. The British philosopher Roger Scruton regards the emergence of the animal rights and anti-speciesism movement as "the strangest cultural shift within

1378-499: A movement began with Gene Baur , the co-founder of Farm Sanctuary , the first official farm sanctuary that opened in 1986. The daily tasks of a FAS involve the primary guardians, volunteers and at time visitors. Each day is structured by routines such as feeding, care and health procedures, as well as cleaning and maintenance. Points of conflict for sanctuaries include human intervention in matters of sterilizing animals and species segregation. Moreover, effective altruists have critiqued

1484-437: A period of time, called stray hold . After the holding period, an animal is considered forfeited by its owner, and may become available for adoption. Animals involved in attacks or bites are placed in quarantine and are not available for adoption until investigations or legal cases are resolved. Animal control's interest is mainly public safety and rabies control . Many shelter policies allow individuals to bring in animals to

1590-437: A proper reason. Generally, proper reasons are slaughtering or hunting for food production (cats and dogs are excepted from that), control of infectious diseases, painless killing "if continued life would imply uncurable pain or suffering" or if an animal poses a danger to the general public. The latter will be a reason for euthanasia only if an authority concerned with public safety orders it based on an investigation. Because of

1696-562: A racist, sexist or homophobe. However, it is not clear if there is a link between speciesism and non-traditional forms of prejudice such as negative attitudes towards the overweight or towards Christians. Psychological studies have furthermore argued that people tend to "morally value individuals of certain species less than others even when beliefs about intelligence and sentience are accounted for." One study identified that there are age-related differences in moral views of animal worth, with children holding less speciesist beliefs than adults;

1802-440: A shelter has four outcomes: return to owner, adoption , transfer to another shelter or rescue facility, or euthanasia . Return to owner is when a stray animal, that was found and housed at the shelter, is picked up by its owner. Most animal shelters practice adoption, where an animal in their care is given or sold to an individual who will keep it and care for it. Some shelters work with rescue organizations , giving an animal to

1908-422: A similarity in sensation. He criticized the use of animals by humans, highlighting the disregard for their feelings, needs, and desires. English naturalist Charles Darwin , writing in his notebook in 1838, asserted that man thinks of himself as a masterpiece produced by a deity, but that he thought it "truer to consider him created from animals." In his 1871 book The Descent of Man , Darwin argued: There

2014-498: A specific dog breed, or they pull hard-to-adopt animals such as those with health or behavioral issues with the intention of rehabilitating the animal for a future adoption. Many rescues don't have brick and mortar locations but operate out of a home or with foster partners. A foster will temporarily take animals from the shelter to their home to give them special attention or care, such as a newly whelped litter of puppies, or an animal recovering from an illness. An animal sanctuary

2120-588: A strong, radical stance against the dominant societal norms, and another that aligns more with mainstream, neoliberal views. In the 21st century, animal rights groups such as the Farm Animal Rights Movement and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals have attempted to popularize the concept by promoting a World Day Against Speciesism on 5 June. The World Day for the End of Speciesism (WoDES)

2226-415: A temporary placement. A retail rescue takes advantage of right-of-first-choice of the free or cheap inventory of animals from shelters to flip shelter-pulled animals under the banner of 'adoption', with little or no retraining or veterinary care in between pulling a dog and selling it. They may also obtain animals cheaply from auctions or puppy mills and command high dollar for their adoptions under

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2332-628: A weak positive correlation with homophobia and right-wing authoritarianism , as well as slightly stronger correlations with political conservatism, racism and system justification . Moderate positive correlations were found with social dominance orientation and sexism. Social dominance orientation was theorised to be underpinning most of the correlations; controlling for social dominance orientation reduces all correlations substantially and renders many statistically insignificant. Speciesism likewise predicts levels of prosociality toward animals and behavioural food choices. Those who state that speciesism

2438-515: A well-developed condition, in the lower animals. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer asserted that anthropocentrism was a fundamental defect of Christianity and Judaism , arguing that these religions have been a source of immense suffering for sentient beings because they separate man from the world of animals, leading to the treatment of animals as only things. Schopenhauer praised Brahmanism and Buddhism for their focus on kinship between humans and other animals, as well as their emphasis on

2544-470: Is a secondary role of FAS. Investing in transforming visitors' and volunteers' perspectives on animal agriculture is a key component of FAS, enlisting farmed animal residents as "ambassadors" of their species to serve a fundraiser role. Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka have outlined two different types of FAS models. FAS can be distinguished by ascribing to either refuge and advocacy model or intentional community model. Refuge- and advocacy-based models are

2650-415: Is a similar annual observance held at the end of August. The WoDES has been held annually since 2015. Scholars including philosopher Peter Singer and botanist Brent Mishler have argued that speciesism is analogous to racism , the belief that some human races are superior to others. In the 2019 book Why We Love and Exploit Animals , Kristof Dhont, Gordon Hodson, Ana C. Leite, and Alina Salmen reveal

2756-401: Is an alternative to euthanasia for difficult-to-adopt animals; it is a permanent placement which may include secure kenneling and care by staff experienced in the handling of animals with serious aggression or permanent behavioral problems, or a home for aged animals that will be cared for until their natural death. Adoption and sending to rescue or sanctuary are permanent placements; fostering is

2862-534: Is creating a coastal sanctuary for beluga whales and orcas in Port Hilford, Nova Scotia and plans to welcome their first residents in late 2023, assuming the project gets the required federal and provincial permits. The National Aquarium in Baltimore, Maryland , is seeking a Caribbean location to create a warm water seaside dolphin sanctuary to become the permanent home for the dolphins currently at their facility. And

2968-439: Is creating a hierarchy where some suffering is more important than others, despite claiming to be committed to equality of suffering. Wells also states that the capacity to suffer, Singer's criteria for moral status, is one of degree rather than absolute categories; Wells observes that Singer denies moral status to plants on the grounds they cannot subjectively feel anything (even though they react to stimuli), yet Wells alleges there

3074-682: Is home to approximately 1,600 animals. According to the sanctuary, "Best Friends has become the heart of a collaborative no-kill movement, and a model for the future of animal welfare," and the sanctuary hopes to "bring the entire nation to no-kill in 2025." While there are many ways to donate and support animal sanctuaries throughout the United States, many sanctuaries have begun bringing awareness to their causes on social media with ranging, but largely significant success. Many have brought in tens or hundreds of thousands of followers. Social media has become an opportunity for sanctuaries to raise awareness of

3180-441: Is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties ... [t]he difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. We have seen that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in

3286-474: Is no indication that nonhuman animals feel pain and suffering the way humans do. Robert Nozick notes that if species membership is irrelevant, then this would mean that endangered animals have no special claim. The Rev. John Tuohey, founder of the Providence Center for Health Care Ethics, writes that the logic behind the anti-speciesism critique is flawed, and that, although the animal rights movement in

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3392-422: Is no morally relevant ability that the marginal-case humans have that nonhumans lack. American legal scholar Steven M. Wise states that speciesism is a bias as arbitrary as any other. He cites the philosopher R.G. Frey (1941–2012), a leading animal rights critic, who wrote in 1983 that, if forced to choose between abandoning experiments on animals and allowing experiments on "marginal-case" humans, he would choose

3498-416: Is not merely plausible; it is essential for right conduct, because those who will not make the morally relevant distinctions among species are almost certain, in consequence, to misapprehend their true obligations." Cohen writes that racism and sexism are wrong because there are no relevant differences between the sexes or races. Between people and animals, he states, there are significant differences; his view

3604-491: Is now widely condemned. Similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor "speciesism" as much as they now detest "racism." The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort. If it is accepted as morally wrong to deliberately inflict suffering upon innocent human creatures, then it is only logical to also regard it as wrong to inflict suffering on innocent individuals of other species. ... The time has come to act upon this logic. The term

3710-431: Is pervasive in the modern society. Sociologist David Nibert states, The profound cultural devaluation of other animals that permits the violence that underlies the animal industrial complex is produced by far-reaching speciesist socialization. For instance, the system of primary and secondary education under the capitalist system largely indoctrinates young people into the dominant societal beliefs and values, including

3816-427: Is similar to ours, must experience similar sensations", and that "those sensations must be proportioned to the activity and perfection of their senses". Despite these assertions, he insisted that there exists a gap between humans and other animals. In the poem " Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne ", Voltaire described a kinship between all sentient beings, humans and animals alike, stating: "All sentient things, born by

3922-550: Is sometimes policy to euthanize animals that are not claimed quickly enough by a previous or new owner. In Europe, of the 30 countries included in a survey, all but six (Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Italy and Poland ) permitted euthanizing non-adopted animals. The shelter industry has terminology for their unique field of work, and though there are no exact standards for consistent definitions, many words have meanings based on their usage. Animal control has

4028-579: Is that animals are expected to perform unnatural behaviors for audiences in spaces that are small and cannot adequately approximate a natural setting. The first cetacean sanctuary for belugas opened in August 2020 by SEA LIFE Trust, as two belugas "Little Grey" and "Little White" were transported 6,000 miles from an aquarium in China to the first open-water whale sanctuary for belugas in Iceland . The Whale Sanctuary Project

4134-555: Is that animals do not qualify for Kantian personhood , and as such have no rights. Nel Noddings , the American feminist, has criticized Singer's concept of speciesism for being simplistic, and for failing to take into account the context of species preference, as concepts of racism and sexism have taken into account the context of discrimination against humans. Peter Staudenmaier has stated that comparisons between speciesism and racism or sexism are trivializing: The central analogy to

4240-459: Is the priority and the mission is to provide an environment where the cetacean residents can thrive. Animal sanctuary services include spaying and neutering , hygiene, and physical well-being. These services are mainly performed by licensed veterinarians . Other positions that can be held by people at sanctuaries include specialized animal trainers, groomers, and volunteers . When it comes to new residents, they are typically not used to living with

4346-404: Is unfair to individuals of nonhuman species have often invoked mammals and chickens in the context of research or farming. There is not yet a clear definition or line agreed upon by a significant segment of the movement as to which species are to be treated equally with humans or in some ways additionally protected: mammals, birds, reptiles, arthropods, insects, bacteria, etc. This question is all

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4452-457: Is vile." It is, he states, a fantasy, a world of escape. Thomas Wells states that Singer's call for ending animal suffering would justify simply exterminating every animal on the planet in order to prevent the numerous ways in which they suffer, as they could no longer feel any pain. Wells also stated that by focusing on the suffering humans inflict on animals and ignoring suffering animals inflict upon themselves or that inflicted by nature, Singer

4558-527: The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy offered a wider definition: "By analogy with racism and sexism, the improper stance of refusing respect to the lives, dignity, or needs of animals of other than the human species." The French-language journal Cahiers antispécistes ("Antispeciesist notebooks") was founded in 1991, by David Olivier , Yves Bonnardel and Françoise Blanchon, who were the first French activists to speak out against speciesism. The aim of

4664-585: The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for compliance with the Animal Welfare Act . Animal shelter An animal shelter or pound is a place where stray, lost, abandoned or surrendered animals – mostly dogs and cats – are housed. The word "pound" has its origins in the animal pounds of agricultural communities, where stray livestock would be penned or impounded until they were claimed by their owners. While no-kill shelters exist, it

4770-591: The Dogs Trust . In the United States there is no government-run organization that provides oversight or regulation of the various shelters on a national basis. However, many individual states regulate shelters within their jurisdiction. One of the earliest comprehensive measures was the Georgia Animal Protection Act of 1986, a law enacted in response to the inhumane treatment of companion animals by

4876-665: The Oxford Group . One of the group's activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern; the pamphlet titled "Speciesism" was written to protest against animal experimentation . The term was intended by its proponents to create a rhetorical and categorical link to racism and sexism. Ryder stated in the pamphlet that "[s]ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no 'magical' essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally? If all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on

4982-467: The "provincialist" attitude leading to animal mistreatment, comparing it to denying ethical relations among human groups. He condemned the human-centric perspective and urged consideration of victims' viewpoints, concluding that the Golden Rule should apply to all sentient beings, advocating equal ethical consideration for animals and humans: [D]o as you would be done by—and not to the dark man and

5088-656: The 1990s. No longer serving as a lifelong repository for strays and drop-offs, modern shelters have taken the lead in controlling the pet population, promoting pet adoption and studying shelter animals' health and behavior. To prevent animal euthanization, some shelters offer behavioral assessments of animals and training classes to make them more adoptable to the public. Most shelters also provide medical care that includes spaying and neutering to prevent overpopulation . Shelters and shelter-like volunteer organizations responded to cat overpopulation with trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs, which reduced feral cat populations and reduced

5194-596: The Archipelagos Institute of Marine Conservation is planning to create the Aegean Marine Life Sanctuary for previously captive dolphins on the island of Lipsi, south of Samos in the eastern Aegean Sea . Like other animal sanctuaries, cetacean sanctuaries adhere to a set of principles that put the animals first above the needs of the public, researchers, donors or other stakeholders. In cetacean sanctuaries, each animal's physical and mental well-being

5300-587: The Dog Control Act 1996. In Poland, it is allowed to euthanize animals in shelters only because of illness. However, it is permitted to kill blind litters as they are considered dependent. In the United Kingdom , animal shelters are more commonly known as rescue or rehoming centres and are run by charitable organizations. The most prominent rescue and rehoming organizations are the RSPCA , Cats Protection and

5406-566: The Riverdale Farm Sanctuary Project has launched a campaign to transform Riverdale Farms, an urban farm in Toronto into a FAS advocating for: 1) Animal Rescue, Refuge, and Advocacy, 2) Compassion and Nonviolence, 3) Ecological and Food Justice and Compassionate Interspecies Community. Expanding beyond the traditional role of a safe haven for farmed animals, sanctuaries can also be understood as playing political roles in transforming

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5512-489: The Situation of Man and of Brutes , English writer and early animal rights advocate Lewis Gompertz argued for egalitarianism , extending it to nonhuman animals. He stated that humans and animals have highly similar feelings and sensations, noting that experiences like hunger, desire, fear, and anger affect both in similar ways. Gompertz also pointed out shared physiological characteristics between humans and animals, suggesting

5618-460: The Speciesism Scale, and those who scored higher on this scale scored higher on racism, sexism, and homophobia scales. Other studies suggest that those who support animal exploitation also tend to endorse racist and sexist views, furthering the beliefs in human supremacy and group dominance in order to justify systems of inequality and oppression. It is suggested that the connection rests in

5724-738: The United States has been influential in slowing animal experimentation, and in some cases halting particular studies, no one has offered a compelling argument for species equality. Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that only human beings are members of the moral community and that all are worthy of equal protection. Species membership, she writes, is ipso facto moral membership. The paradigm has an inclusive side (all human beings deserve equal protection) and an exclusive one (only human beings have that status). Nonhumans do possess some moral status in many societies, but it generally extends only to protection against what Cavalieri calls "wanton cruelty". Anti-speciesists state that

5830-651: The abuse and cruelty that is present in many animal-based industries and educate the general population on how they can help. There are two primary organizations that provide accreditation and support for animal sanctuaries: the Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries and the American Sanctuary Association . In the United States, sanctuaries must also be licensed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and regularly inspected by

5936-418: The animal-industrial complex is both a consequence and cause of speciesism, which according to them is a form of discrimination similar to racism or sexism . They also argue that the obfuscation of meat's animal origins is a critical part of the animal–industrial complex under capitalist and neoliberal regimes. Speciesism results in the belief that humans have the right to use non-human animals , which

6042-422: The authors argue that such findings indicate that the development of speciesist beliefs is socially constructed over an individual's lifetime. Piers Beirne considers speciesism as the ideological anchor of the intersecting networks of the animal–industrial complex , such as factory farms , vivisection , hunting and fishing , zoos and aquaria , and wildlife trade . Amy Fitzgerald and Nik Taylor argue that

6148-453: The beliefs in human supremacy and group dominance to justify systems of inequality and oppression. As a term, speciesism first appeared during a protest against animal experimentation in 1970. Philosophers and animal rights advocates state that speciesism plays a role in the animal–industrial complex , including in the practice of factory farming , animal slaughter , blood sports (such as bullfighting , cockfighting and rodeos ),

6254-527: The burden on shelters. In the United States , many government-run animal shelters operate in conditions that are far from ideal. In the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–2008 , many government shelters ran out of adequate space and financial resources. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within days. In 2012, approximately four million cats and dogs died in U.S. shelters. However, recent years have seen

6360-586: The capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as an acceptable moral theory. The term caught on; Singer wrote that it was an awkward word but that he could not think of a better one. It became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as "discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankind's superiority." In 1994

6466-658: The civil rights movement and the women's movement is trivializing and ahistorical. Both of those social movements were initiated and driven by members of the dispossessed and excluded groups themselves, not by benevolent men or white people acting on their behalf. Both movements were built precisely around the idea of reclaiming and reasserting a shared humanity in the face of a society that had deprived it and denied it. No civil rights activist or feminist ever argued, "We're sentient beings too!" They argued, "We're fully human too!" Animal liberation doctrine, far from extending this humanist impulse, directly undermines it. A similar argument

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6572-521: The common origins and similarities between humans and animals, arguing that morality should extend to animals as they too experience pain and pleasure. They rejected the Christian theological gap between humans and animals, promoting scientific theories to support animal rights and welfare. English writer and animal rights advocate Henry S. Salt , in his 1892 book Animals' Rights , argued that for humans to do justice to other animals, they must look beyond

6678-798: The conception of a "great gulf" between them, claiming instead that we should recognize the "common bond of humanity that unites all living beings in one universal brotherhood". Edward Payson Evans , an American scholar and animal rights advocate, criticized anthropocentric psychology and ethics in his 1897 work Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology . He argued that these views wrongfully treat humans as fundamentally different from other sentient beings, disregarding any moral obligations towards them. Evans believed that Darwin's theory of evolution implied moral duties not only towards enslaved humans but also towards nonhuman animals. He asserted that beyond kind treatment, animals need enforceable rights to protect them from cruelty. Evans contended that recognizing

6784-640: The connection between them through metempsychosis . Secularists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocated for animals based their stance on utilitarian principles and evolutionary kinship, critiquing the Christian church's neglect of social justice and acceptance of suffering as divinely ordained. They sought a morality free from religious influence, initially supporting vivisection for human benefit but later questioning its necessity. Figures like G. W. Foote argued for broader utility, focusing on long-term moral principles rather than immediate gains. Embracing evolutionary theories, secularists highlighted

6890-413: The effectiveness of the educational component of sanctuaries. The intentional community model addresses the shortcomings of the standard sanctuary model by focusing on movement building that includes a spectrum of speciesist issues such as developing farmed animal veterinary care that exist outside of standard practices that have aimed at meeting animal agricultural interests. The six characteristics of

6996-711: The efficiency of FAS's ability to reduce animal suffering as demonstrated in the "arithmetic of compassion", a utilitarian measure of advocacy that applies mathematical formulas to reduce the most suffering in light of individual lives. Jon Bockman of Animal Charity Evaluators , states, "expending too many resources on direct rescue results in less money directed toward education and a lower overall impact in helping animals, and all advocates should give consideration to this concern when deciding how best to help animals". FAS has, in some ways, evolved to more actions such as re-homing to increase sanctuary capacity and rescuing farmed animals in criminal or domestic cases. The educational role

7102-526: The ethics, morality, and concept of speciesism has been the subject of substantial philosophical debate. Carl Cohen , Nel Noddings , Bernard Williams , Peter Staudenmaier , Christopher Grau, Douglas Maclean, Roger Scruton , Thomas Wells, and Robert Nozick have criticized the term or elements of it. Buffon , a French naturalist, writing in Histoire Naturelle , published in 1753, questioned whether it could be doubted that animals "whose organization

7208-483: The evolutionary kinship of all creatures, aligning with Darwin's insights. He criticized the "pre-Darwinian delusion" that nonhuman animals were created for human use. In his 1899 book Better-World Philosophy , Moore argued that human ethics were still anthropocentric, evolving to include various human groups but not animals. He proposed "zoocentricism" as the next stage, considering the entire sentient universe. In his 1906 book The Universal Kinship , Moore criticized

7314-635: The existence of an impartial observer, an "enchanted picture of the universe", to state them to be so. Thus, Grau states that such properties have no greater justification as criteria for moral status than being a member of a species does. Grau also states that even if such an impartial perspective existed, it still would not necessarily be against speciesism, since it is entirely possible that there could be reasons given by an impartial observer for humans to care about humanity. Grau then further observes that if an impartial observer existed and valued only minimalizing suffering, it would likely be overcome with horror at

7420-449: The extension of moral membership to all humanity, regardless of individual properties such as intelligence, while denying it to nonhumans, also regardless of individual properties, is internally inconsistent. According to the argument from marginal cases , if infants, the senile, the comatose, and the cognitively disabled (marginal-case human beings) have a certain moral status, then nonhuman animals must be awarded that status too since there

7526-718: The form of volunteering, monetary contributions, donations of food and materials, spreading the word, and in some cases, adoption. One of the most important missions of sanctuaries, beyond caring for the animals, is educating the public. The ultimate goal of many sanctuaries is to change the way that humans think of, and treat, non-human animals. On the basis of the types of animals being cared for, sanctuaries are of five types: Farmed animal sanctuaries (FAS) provide care, shelter and advocacy of farmed animal species such as chickens , cows , goats , fish , horses , pig , turkeys , and sheep . The farm sanctuary layout tends to resemble traditional farms however functions differently. FAS as

7632-553: The geographies in which farmed animals are found serve as a corrective to forming human-farmed animal friendships. An example of the intentional sanctuary model can be found in the Microsanctuary Movement started by Rosemary and Justin Van Kleeck. The Microsanctuary Movement encourages city-dwellers to rescue farmed animals to expand what species are considered to be companion animals . Similarly, Darren Chang, co-founder of

7738-428: The ideology of social dominance. Psychologists have also considered examining speciesism as a specific psychological construct or attitude (as opposed to speciesism as a philosophy), which was achieved using a specifically designed Likert scale . Studies have found that speciesism is a stable construct that differs amongst personalities and correlates with other variables. For example, speciesism has been found to have

7844-413: The intentional community model include: belonging, absence of fixed hierarchical relationships, self-determination , citizenship, dependent agency, and scaffolded choices and reconfigured spaces. These characteristics redress some of the critiques of the refuge and advocacy model by grounding sanctuary practices in animal agency and expanding the geographical boundaries of where animals can live. Expanding

7950-414: The interests of members of one's own species and against those of members of other species": Racists violate the principle of equality by giving greater weight to the interests of members of their own race when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race. Sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow

8056-479: The interests of their own species to override the greater interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case. Singer stated from a preference-utilitarian perspective, writing that speciesism violates the principle of equal consideration of interests , the idea based on Jeremy Bentham's principle: "each to count for one, and none for more than one." Singer stated that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share

8162-569: The journal was to disseminate anti-speciesist ideas in France and to encourage debate on the topic of animal ethics , specifically on the difference between animal liberation and ecology . Estela Díaz and Oscar Horta assert that in Spanish-speaking countries, unlike English-speaking countries, anti-speciesism has become the dominant approach for animal advocacy. In Italy, the contemporary anti-speciesist movement has two main approaches: one that takes

8268-578: The kinship between humans and all sentient beings would make it impossible to mistreat them. An 1898 article in The Zoophilist , titled "Anthropocentric Ethics", argued that early civilizations, before Christianity, viewed tenderness and mercy towards sentient beings as a law. It highlighted that Zarathustra , Buddha , and early Greek philosophers, who practiced vegetarianism , espoused this philosophy. The article claimed that this understanding of human-animal kinship persisted into early Christianity but

8374-510: The liberal worldview", because the idea of rights and responsibilities is, he states, distinctive to the human condition, and it makes no sense to spread them beyond our own species. Scruton argues that if animals have rights, then they also have duties, which animals would routinely violate, such as by breaking laws or killing other animals. He accuses anti-speciesism advocates of "pre-scientific" anthropomorphism , attributing traits to animals that are, he says, Beatrix Potter -like, where "only man

8480-676: The location they were picked up. In Quebec , there are two types of animal shelters: Larger cities in Germany have a city shelter (Tierheim) for animals or contract with one of the many non-profit animal organizations in the country, which run their own shelters. Most shelters are populated by dogs, cats, and a variety of small animals like mice, rats, and rabbits. Additionally, there are so-called Gnadenhöfe ("mercy-farms") for larger animals that take cattle or horses from private owners who want to put them down for financial reasons. The Animal Protection Act prohibits killing of vertebrates without

8586-504: The more complex since a study by Miralles et al. (2019) has brought to light the evolutionary component of human empathic and compassionate reactions and the influence of anthropomorphic mechanisms in our affective relationship with the living world as a whole: the more an organism is evolutionarily distant from us, the less we recognize ourselves in it and the less we are moved by its fate. Some researchers have suggested that since speciesism could be considered, in terms of social psychology,

8692-402: The most standard. These sanctuaries are found in traditional agricultural communities in part because of the physical and legal infrastructure. Six characteristics of this model include: duty of care, support for species-typical flourishing, recognition of individuality, non-exploitation, non-perpetuation, and awareness and advocacy. The latter characteristic has launched a series of questions into

8798-416: The municipal function of picking up stray dogs and cats, and investigating reports of animal abuse , dog bites or animal attacks . It may also be called animal care and control , and earlier was called the dog catcher or rabies control . Stray, lost or abandoned pets picked up off the streets are usually transported to the local animal shelter, or pound . Uncomplicated stray cases are usually kept for

8904-402: The number of healthy, adoptable animals , while others compare live releases to every animal they took in – as such, the terms high kill, low kill, and no kill are therefore subjective. Shelter partners include rescue groups, fosters and sanctuaries. Rescue groups will often pull dogs from shelters, helping to reduce the number of animals at a shelter. A rescue group often specializes in

9010-400: The opportunity to behave as natural as possible in a protective environment. What distinguishes a sanctuary from other institutions is the philosophy that the residents come first. In a sanctuary, every action is scrutinized for any trace of human benefit at the expense of non-human residents. Sanctuaries act on behalf of the animals, and the caregivers work under the notion that all animals in

9116-799: The political and spatial lives of animal residents and their broader species communities leaning into pioneering a less-speciesist future. Cetacean sanctuaries are designed for autonomy and well-being, enabling as natural a life as possible in ocean water.  Lifetime of care is provided for these whales , dolphins , or porpoises . Like other wild animals who have spent much or all of their lives in zoos , cetaceans who have lived in marine parks for most or all of their lives are potentially poor candidates for reintroduction and, therefore, sanctuaries are an alternative to living on display or in entertainment facilities. Sanctuary site selection, as far as size, water quality, protection from hazards and weather events, and more, introduce unique considerations for finding

9222-487: The production and slaughter of animals, the animal–industrial complex is perceived as the materialization of the institution of speciesism, with speciesism becoming "a mode of production". In his 2011 book Critical Theory and Animal Liberation , J. Sanbonmatsu argues that speciesism is not ignorance or the absence of a moral code towards animals, but is a mode of production and material system imbricated with capitalism . Philosopher Carl Cohen stated in 1986: "Speciesism

9328-939: The property of being a human being is not?" Williams states that to respond by arguing that it is because these are properties considered valuable by human beings does not undermine speciesism as humans also consider human beings to be valuable, thus justifying speciesism. Williams then states that the only way to resolve this would be by arguing that these properties are "simply better" but in that case, one would need to justify why these properties are better if not because of human attachment to them. Christopher Grau supported Williams, arguing that if one used properties like rationality, sentience and moral agency as criteria for moral status as an alternative to species-based moral status, then it would need to be shown why these particular properties are to be used instead of others; there must be something that gives them special status. Grau states that to claim these are simply better properties would require

9434-504: The psychological connections between speciesism and other prejudices such as racism and sexism. Marjetka Golež Kaučič connects racism and speciesism saying that discriminations based on race and species are strongly interrelated, with human rights providing the legal ground for the development of the animal rights. Kaučič further argues that racism and speciesism are further connected to issues of freedom, both collective and individual. In one study, 242 participants responded to questions on

9540-415: The rescue rather than adopting it to an individual. Some jurisdictions mandate that shelters cooperate with rescues; some shelters utilize rescues to offload animals with health or behavior problems that they are not equipped to deal with. Many shelters practice some level of euthanasia. Euthanasia is the act of putting an animal to death. A high kill shelter euthanizes many of the animals they take in;

9646-495: The residents. There are currently over 1500 wildlife sanctuaries in the United States, ranging from elephant rehabilitation (The Elephant Sanctuary, Tennessee) to those caring for farm animals saved from slaughterhouses (Farm Animal Refuge, San Diego, California). The largest animal sanctuary in the United States is the Best Friends Animal Sanctuary near Kanab, Utah. This sanctuary spans across nearly 4,000 acres and

9752-427: The rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been withheld from them but by the hand of tyranny.… [T]he question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? Additionally, he was a strong proponent of animal welfare laws. However, he also accepted the killing and use of animals, provided that unnecessary cruelty was avoided. In his 1824 work Moral Inquiries on

9858-577: The ruling, all German animal shelters are practically no-kill shelters . Facilities must be led by a person who is certified in the handling of animals. Most shelters contract veterinarians to provide medical care. Goshalas are a type of shelter for homeless, unwanted or elderly cattle in India . Cows are venerated by many Hindus and slaughter of cattle is illegal in most places in the country. In New Zealand, dog pounds are run by each territorial local authority , which provide animal control services under

9964-718: The ruse of having 'rescued' the animal. A retail shelter operates like an ordinary animal shelter but with more of the flavor of a pet store than a traditional shelter by selling pet supplies. They may even obtain animals from out of the area to increase their inventory of animals, rather than serving only their geographic service area. Many shelters routinely spay or neuter all their adoptable animals and vaccinate them for rabies and other routine pet diseases. Shelters often offer rabies clinics or spay-neuter clinics to their local public at discount rates. Some shelters participate in trap–neuter–return programs where stray animals are captured, neutered and vaccinated, then returned to

10070-538: The same moral continuum." He wrote that, at that time in the United Kingdom, 5,000,000 animals were being used each year in experiments, and that attempting to gain benefits for our own species through the mistreatment of others was "just 'speciesism' and as such it is a selfish emotional argument rather than a reasoned one". Ryder used the term again in an essay, "Experiments on Animals", in Animals, Men and Morals (1971),

10176-502: The same stern law, / Suffer like me, and like me also die." Jeremy Bentham was the first Western philosopher to advocate for animals' equal consideration within a comprehensive, secular moral framework. He argued that species membership is morally irrelevant and that any being capable of suffering has intrinsic value . In his 1789 book, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation , he wrote: The day may come, when

10282-412: The sanctuary, human and non-human, are of equal importance. Most sanctuaries are not open to the public in the sense of a zoo ; that is, allowing unescorted public access to the facility. A legitimate sanctuary avoids activity that would place the animals in an unduly stressful situation. Most sanctuaries are also not government-funded and are usually nonprofit . Public help is accepted by sanctuaries in

10388-667: The shelter, often called owner surrender , or relinquishing an animal. An open admission shelter will accept any animal regardless of reason, and is usually a municipal-run shelter or a private shelter with a contract to operate for a municipality. Municipal shelters may limit incoming animals to those from the area in which they serve. A managed admission shelter requires an appointment and will restrict admission of animals to fit their available resources. Limited admission shelters are usually private or non-profit shelters without municipal contracts, and they may limit their intake to only highly-adoptable and healthy animals. An animal in

10494-613: The suffering of all individuals and would rather have humanity annihilate the planet than allow it to continue. Grau thus concludes that those endorsing the idea of deriving values from an impartial observer do not seem to have seriously considered the conclusions of such an idea. Douglas Maclean agreed that Singer raised important questions and challenges, particularly with his argument from marginal cases. However, Maclean questioned if different species can be fitted with human morality, observing that animals were generally held exempt from morality; Maclean notes that most people would try to stop

10600-552: The taking of animals' fur and skin , and experimentation on animals , as well as the refusal to help animals suffering in the wild due to natural processes, and the categorization of certain animals as alien, non-naturalized, feral and invasive giving then the justification to their killing or culling based on these classifications. Notable proponents of the concept include Peter Singer , Oscar Horta , Steven M. Wise , Gary L. Francione , Melanie Joy , David Nibert , Steven Best , and Ingrid Newkirk . Among academics,

10706-593: The treatment is justified or not. Richard D. Ryder , who coined the term, defined it as "a prejudice or attitude of bias in favour of the interests of members of one's own species and against those of members of other species". Speciesism results in the belief that humans have the right to use non-human animals in exploitative ways which is pervasive in the modern society. Studies from 2015 and 2019 suggest that people who support animal exploitation also tend to have intersectional bias that encapsulates and endorses racist, sexist, and other prejudicial views, which furthers

10812-481: The white woman alone, but to the sorrel horse and the gray squirrel as well; not to creatures of your own anatomy only, but to all creatures. The term speciesism , and the argument that it is a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder . Ryder was a member of a group of academics in Oxford , England, the nascent animal rights community, now known as

10918-403: Was challenged by figures like Origen , who saw animals as mere automata for human use. It concluded that the relationship between animal psychology and evolutionary ethics is gaining scientific and moral attention and can no longer be ignored. In 1895, American zoologist, philosopher, and animal rights advocate J. Howard Moore described vegetarianism as the ethical result of recognizing

11024-423: Was made by Bernard Williams , who observed that a difference between speciesism versus racism and sexism is that racists and sexists deny any input from those of a different race or sex when it comes to questioning how they should be treated. Conversely, when it comes to how animals should be treated by humans, Williams observed that it is only possible for humans to discuss that question. Williams observed that being

11130-456: Was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book Animal Liberation (1975). Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a graduate philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his book's fifth chapter: "Man's Dominion ... a short history of speciesism ", defining it as "a prejudice or attitude of bias in favour of

11236-543: Was the Humane Euthanasia Act , the first state law to mandate intravenous injection of sodium pentothal in place of gas chambers and other less humane methods. The law was further expanded and strengthened with the Animal Protection Act of 2000. Currently, it is estimated that there are approximately 5,000 independently-run animal shelters operating nationwide. Shelters have redefined their role since

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