125-577: The Sultanate of Bijapur was an early modern kingdom in the western Deccan and South India , ruled by the Adil Shahi or Adilshahi dynasty. Bijapur had been a taraf (province) of the Bahmani Kingdom prior to its independence in 1490 and before the former's political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century. It was one of the Deccan sultanates , the collective name of the five successor states of
250-504: A Jesuit in Ali I's rule and a Mughal diplomat in the same period of Ibrahim's rule show the increase of wealth of the commoners and city. In 1594, Ibrahim suppressed a rebellion of his brother Ismail, who had been aided in his efforts by Burhan II of Ahmednagar. In 1597, despite their past quarrels, the Adil Shahis formed an alliance with Ahmednagar and Golconda to deter further Mughal advance in
375-514: A Bijapuri general, was sent to subdue Shivaji in 1659, but his expedition ended a disaster, as he was murdered and his home fort of Pratapgarh was captured in a confrontation with Shivaji. Despite further Maratha advances in the north, Ali continued his southern campaigns in the Karnatak and Carnatic, in which he captured Thanjavur and other cities from the Nayakas from 1659–63. Sikandar Adil Shah ,
500-520: A campaign lasting until 1575, in which he conquered Adoni and much of the Carnatic ; Ali embarked on a monarch-transcending campaign to capture and subjugate all of the Karnatak as well the same year, where his zealotry for Shiism was put on display; Richard M. Eaton writes that his "armies destroyed two to three hundred Hindu temples" and that he replaced many of these with Shia religious buildings. By 1576,
625-408: A connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei. Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it
750-505: A crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed. The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century. China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels. Despite isolationist policies
875-626: A founder of modern political science . Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince , a work of realist political theory . The Swiss Paracelsus (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution while the Anglo-Irish Robert Boyle was one of the founders of modern chemistry. In visual arts, notable representatives included the "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , and Raphael , Albrecht Dürer (often considered
1000-496: A largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul. The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity. King Sejong the Great (1418–1450), one of the only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to
1125-483: A later diplomatic conflict, the emperor occupied the capital of Bijapur for an extended period through the sultan's insistence to not see Krishnadevaraya. Ismail invaded the territory of Amir Barid I of Bidar in 1529, and laid siege to his capital. Aladdin Imad Shah of Berar attempted to intervene in the conflict to seek mediation, but was unsuccessful. Amir Barid, in exchange for his life following his capture, gave up
1250-453: A more concerted effort to conquer the remaining Muslim Deccan states was launched. In April 1685, Mughal forces, led by Aurangzeb, began their siege of Bijapur , and with its conclusion on 12 September 1686, the Sultanate of Bijapur came to an end. The capital and its surrounding territory were annexed into an eponymous subah , while Sikandar was sent into Mughal captivity. The architecture of
1375-470: A narrative of the sultan's conquests. Nine sultans ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur from 1490 to 1686, their title being the Sultan of Bijapur. Early modern The early modern period is a historical period that is part of, or (depending on the historian ) immediately preceded, the modern period , with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity . There
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#17328546518881500-569: A policy of allowing Ahmednagar freedom to expand in the territory of Bidar provided Bijapur could have the same freedom to annex lands from Vijayanagara; thus Ibrahim imprisoned Ali Barid Shahi of Bidar despite their former alliance, though he was later freed by Jamsheed out of his yearning for a buffer state in the Deccan. Burhan Nizam Shah four times laid siege to the Bijapuri city of Solapur throughout these conflicts, but did not successfully retain it until
1625-459: A result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers. In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) with
1750-497: A third invasion, where territory on the southern border was additionally occupied. Burhan advanced in a fourth invasion in 1553 with Vijayanagara almost to the Bijapuri capital, but retreated due to his failing health. Ali Adil Shah I , who next ascended the throne in 1558, reestablished Shiism as the state religion. He inquired of Hussain Nizam Shah I that he may be given back Solapur and Kaliyani, both of which had been taken from
1875-558: Is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of European history : antiquity , the Middle Ages and the modern period. The term "early modern" was first proposed by medieval historian Lynn Thorndike in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization as a broader alternative to the Renaissance . It was first picked up within the field of economic history during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in
2000-415: Is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500–1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following the Middle Ages and preceding the advent of modernity; but
2125-799: Is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. The early modern period is taken to end with the French Revolution , the Napoleonic Wars , and the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire at the Congress of Vienna . At the end of the early modern period,
2250-617: The shōguns of the Tokugawa clan . The period gets its name from the capital city, Edo , now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868, when it was abolished during the Meiji Restoration in the late Edo period (often called the Late Tokugawa shogunate ). Society in the Japanese " Tokugawa period " ( Edo society ), unlike the shogunates before it,
2375-454: The Age of Revolution dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies. The early period ended in a time of political and economic change, as a result of mechanization in society,
2500-777: The American Revolution , and the first French Revolution ; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna and the peace established by the Second Treaty of Paris , which ended the Napoleonic Wars. In the Americas, pre-Columbian peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire , the Inca civilization ,
2625-462: The British and Russian empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of colonial empires , while the three great Asian empires of the early modern period, Ottoman Turkey , Mughal India and Qing China , all entered a period of stagnation or decline. When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it
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#17328546518882750-681: The Commercial Revolution and the Golden Age of Piracy . The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian city-states and maritime republics , particularly Genoa , Venice , and Milan . Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century. The Great Divergence took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth. As
2875-470: The Durrani Empire . The Songhai Empire took control of the trans-Saharan trade at the beginning of the modern era. It seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to Gao . Many major events caused Europe to change around
3000-618: The Jurchens . When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng 's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor , the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing , which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper . Schoppa,
3125-665: The Karnatak and Carnatic extended Bijapur's formal borders and nominal authority as far south as Tanjore . Bijapur, for most of its history, was bounded on the west by the Portuguese state of Goa , on the east by the Sultanate of Golconda , to the north by the Ahmednagar Sultanate and to the south by the Vijayanagara Empire and its succeeding Nayaka dynasties . The sultanate clashed incessantly with its neighbours. After
3250-525: The Malay Peninsula , Borneo , and eastern Indonesia, though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated. Majapahit struggled to control the rising Sultanate of Malacca , which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket, Satun, Pattani, and Sumatra. The Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital in 1511, and by 1528, the Sultanate of Johor was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca. During
3375-551: The Maratha Confederacy , in 1674, and by then had de facto control over much of the Adil Shahis' original territory in the Deccan. He in the following years undid almost all of the southern Bijapuri conquests, annexing this territory into his own state, while also attempting to capture Bijapur itself. Throughout this period the Mughals had been continuously encroaching upon the Adil Shahis' territory, and with Shivaji's death in 1680,
3500-823: The Mataram Sultanate was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region. In Early Modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of isolationism from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the Early Modern Period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as Guangzhou and Dejima . Around
3625-606: The Maya civilization and its cities, and the Muisca . The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to the spread of Christianity around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the Columbian Exchange that linked
3750-790: The Old World and the New World , greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the Atlantic slave trade and colonization of Native Americans began during this period. The Ottoman Empire conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa. In the Islamic world , after the fall of the Timurid Renaissance , powers such as the Ottoman, Suri , Safavid , and Mughal empires grew in strength (three of which are known as gunpowder empires for
3875-483: The Portuguese on Tanegashima Isle in 1543, the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the arquebus , European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion ( Christianity ), decorative art, language (integration to Japanese of a Western vocabulary ) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced tempura and valuable refined sugar. Central government
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4000-661: The Sharifan dynasty . The Safavid Empire was a great Shia Persianate empire after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam, marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east. The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in Ardabil , the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming
4125-609: The Siege of Belgrade (1456) , led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano . The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat, with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of Christendom . The noon bell, ordered by Pope Callixtus III, commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day. Muhammad Shah III Lashkari Muhammad Shah III Lashkari or Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah III
4250-618: The Third Battle of Panipat halted their expansion in 1761. The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey , when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, in 1765, when the company was granted
4375-696: The diwani , or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar , or in 1772, when the company established a capital in Calcutta , appointed its first Governor-General , Warren Hastings , and became directly involved in governance. The Maratha Confederacy, following the Anglo-Maratha wars , eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo-Maratha War . Rule by
4500-414: The ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty , which would be the last dynasty of China . The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of Chinese culture in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance. The Manchus were formerly known as
4625-666: The 15th century unfolded through a series of conflicts and diplomatic maneuvers between the Gajapati Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1475, a Bahmani rebel officer named Bhimraj initiated a revolt at Kondavidu , a Bahmani territory, leading to a complex alliance between the Gajapatis and chiefs of Telangana and Jajnagar . The Sultan successfully defeated them and forced Purushottam Dev to surrender. Tensions heightened in 1478 when Muhammad Shah III invaded Orissa. Alarmed by
4750-462: The 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722,
4875-655: The 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing Dynasty. In 1637, King Injo was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince Dorgon . The rise of the Mughal Empire is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an Islamic Persianate imperial power that ruled most of
5000-414: The 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear. At the start of the modern era, the Spice Route between India and China crossed Majapahit , an archipelagic empire based on the island of Java . It was the last of the major Hindu empires of Maritime Southeast Asia and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history. Its influence extended to Sumatra ,
5125-474: The Bahmani Kingdom. At its peak, the Sultanate of Bijapur was one of the most powerful states in South Asia, second to the Mughal Empire , which conquered it in 1686 under Aurangzeb . The founder of the sultanate, Yusuf Adil Shah , after emigrating to the Bahmani Sultanate, rose his position within the state and was appointed governor of the province of Bijapur . In 1490, he created a de facto independent Bijapur state, before becoming formally independent with
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5250-417: The Bahmanis' collapse in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate's borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary southern Maharashtra and northern Karnataka . The Sultanate expanded southward, its first major conquest the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns in
5375-418: The Bold (or Rash) to his enemies, His early death was a pivotal moment in European history. Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit, although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations. Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, Mary of Burgundy , as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for
5500-468: The Company lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and following the Government of India Act 1858 , the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj . In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch. However, the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From
5625-424: The Deccan at its inception, Eaton calls it "one of the most imposing and magnificent" in the region. Under Ibrahim II , the sultanate's most prolific patron, the aspects of Adil Shahi architecture evolved to focus on intricate carvings and detail and adopted a style of Hindu–Muslim syncretism ; this change is seen in the Malika Jahan Begum mosque built by the sultan in 1586. His most notable commissioned work though
5750-421: The Deccan, who had recently conquered Berar from Ahmednagar. Their alliance, led under a Bijapuri general, was defeated in their attempts to defeat the Mughal forces despite outnumbering them three to one. Ahmednagar fully fell to Mughal sovereignty in 1600, but Ibrahim continued to support the later successful revival efforts of Malik Ambar for the greater cause of pushing back the Mughals. Ibrahim II also founded
5875-414: The Dutch, while Japan engaged in the Nanban trade after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the Azuchi–Momoyama period . Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Empire along with Ayutthaya experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia, with the Nguyen and Trinh lords de facto ruling the south and north of present-day Vietnam respectively, whereas
6000-399: The East Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong . By the 16th century, Asian economies under the Ming dynasty and Mughal Bengal were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and
6125-432: The Empire ) and France ensued, culminating in the Treaty of Senlis (1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482). The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance. In Central Europe, King Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe ) and patron,
6250-441: The Japanese cut off all trade with Macau , and the Dutch severed connections between Goa and Macau. The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age , natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as Li Zicheng , to challenge Ming authority. The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to
6375-497: The Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of Spanish New World silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as Macau . Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect Korea from Japanese Invasion . The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: Philip IV restricted shipments of exports from Acapulco ,
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#17328546518886500-402: The Mughal Empire took place under Muhammad's rule in 1631 by Shah Jahan , who reached and besieged Bijapur but was ultimately unsuccessful. In 1636, Bijapur was forced to sign a treaty after a defeat against the Mughals requiring them to pay tribute to the Mughal emperor and acknowledge Mughal authority. As a reward for this gesture, the recent Mughal conquest of Ahmednagar was partitioned between
6625-420: The Mughal bureaucracy, and the revolt of then governor of Pune , Shivaji , whose father was a Maratha commander in the service of Muhammad Adil Shah who had been employed in the Karnatak campaigns. Muhammad Adil Shah died in 1656, though was effectively powerless in the last decade of his life from a paralyzing illness which first affected him in 1646. Ali Adil Shah II inherited a troubled kingdom. His state
6750-480: The Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia. In the 16th to early 18th centuries, Central Asia was under the rule of Uzbeks , and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local Pashtuns . Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the Kipchaks , Naimans , Kangly , Khongirad , and Manghuds . These groups were led by Muhammad Shaybani , who
6875-465: The Sultanate of Bijapur , as a subset of Deccani architecture , was a variant of Indo-Islamic architecture , influenced by that of the Middle East. Adil Shahi architecture was of high sculptural quality, attained through its localized and unique nature. Characteristic of Adil Shahi architecture was large domes and dargahs , complex turrets , geometric and Arabic or Persian calligraphic designs, and decorated friezes of tholobates . Yusuf Adil Shah ,
7000-482: The Sultans of Golconda, Ahmednagar and Bidar, despite their past conflicts, and together brought down the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 in the decisive Battle of Talikota . Rama Raya was beheaded after being captured by the Deccani side. Vijayanagara and nearby cities were sacked and looted, the former city for a period of five to six months, which historian Hermann Goetz states prompted the emigration of much of Vijayanagara's populace to Bijapur. The entire Raichur Doab and
7125-419: The absolute ruler of Bijapur. In 1514 a dispute over Gulbaraga province led the rulers of the Ahmednagar, Golconda, and Bidar Sultanates to invade the provinces of Ismail Adil Shah, but they were deterred and Ismail emerged victorious. In 1520, Krishnadevaraya laid siege to the Bijapuri fort of Raichur . The siege would continue for three months until the emperor's encounter with Ismail, who attempted to relieve
7250-421: The allied victory over Vijayanagara at Talikota in 1565, the state further expanded through its conquest of the neighbouring Bidar Sultanate in 1619. The sultanate was thereafter relatively stable, although it was damaged by the revolt of Shivaji , who founded an independent Maratha Kingdom which went on to become the Maratha Confederacy . The greatest threat to Bijapur's security was, from the late 16th century,
7375-442: The area as Hindustan by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries. The empire dominated South Asia , becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power, with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of the global economy, superior than the combined GDP of Europe. The empire, prior to the death of the last prominent emperor Aurangzeb , was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different provinces . All
7500-446: The beginning of the Age of Discovery . Its end is often marked by the French Revolution , and sometimes also the American Revolution or Napoleon 's rise to power . Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading globalizing character. New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over
7625-410: The beginning of the ethnically Han Ming dynasty (1368–1644), China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them. Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be
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#17328546518887750-409: The beginning of the modern period with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the Counter Reformation . The Hussite Crusades (1419–1434) involved military actions against the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia , concluding with the Battle of Grotniki . These wars were notable for being among
7875-413: The capital of the sultanate throughout its existence. After modest earlier developments, Ibrahim Adil Shah I and Ali Adil Shah I remodelled Bijapur, providing the citadel and city walls, and a congregational mosque . Their successors, Ibrahim Adil Shah II , Mohammed Adil Shah and Ali Adil Shah II , further adorned Bijapur with palaces, mosques, a mausoleum and other structures, considered to be some of
8000-422: The capital relatively unopposed, but later withdrew. The sultan, in addition to his work on Nauraspur, constructed many architectural works near Bijapur which composed the Ibrahim Rauza . Muhammad Adil Shah succeeded his father Ibrahim II in 1627. Under Muhammad's reign, the Sultanate of Bijapur reached its peak, territorially and in power and economic prosperity. The first invasion of the Sultanate of Bijapur by
8125-402: The centers for its early literary evolution. Ibrahim II was a skillful writer of Deccani Urdu literature , and one of its earliest proponents. Ibrahim himself wrote the Kitab-e-Navras , a Deccani musical poetry work, and patronized many poets and their works of art. His poet laureate , Persian Muhammad Zuhuri , wrote the Saqinama , a collection of lyric poetry . Another employed by the sultan
8250-449: The city and its skilled class. Another conflict between Ahmednagar and Bijapur arose in 1567; Ali invaded the former and his forces occupied multiple forts, but the war ended up inconclusive. In 1570, a conflict with the Portuguese began in the hopes of expelling them completely from India; this did not go according to plan, however, and Ali was defeated after multiple encounters in 1571. He subsequently annexed more land from Vijayanagara in
8375-403: The city of Nauraspur in 1599, three kilometers west of Bijapur as a planned great center of learning and art, but it was never fully completed and was destroyed in 1624 by Malik Ambar's forces. In 1618, the sultan lost the fortress of Janjira to the independent Habshi state of western India. The following year, Bijapur conquered the neighbouring Bidar Sultanate, although effective control over
8500-399: The coming to power of Tokugawa Ieyasu after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Tokugawa received the title of shōgun in 1603, establishing the Tokugawa shogunate . The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a feudalist regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by
8625-427: The country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyōs might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As
8750-437: The country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered
8875-422: The course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of mercantilism as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of experimental science , increasingly rapid technological progress , secularized civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of nation states . The early modern period
9000-465: The dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context of global history , the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period. Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , the start of the Renaissance , the end of the Crusades and
9125-426: The early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing , also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around
9250-630: The early modern era, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed an expansion and consolidation of power, leading to a Pax Ottomana . This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent Persian Shi'a Safavid Empire to the east. In the Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of Algeria , Tunisia , and Tripolitania (between 1519 and 1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under
9375-533: The editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries." The Sengoku period that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states". Following contact with
9500-650: The expansion of the Mughal Empire into the Deccan. Various agreements and treaties imposed Mughal suzerainty on the Adil Shahs, by stages, until Bijapur's formal recognition of Mughal authority in 1636. The influence of their Mughal overlords, in combination with continual strife with the Marathas, sapped the state of its prosperity until the Mughal conquest of Bijapur in 1686. The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained
9625-528: The finest examples of Deccani and Indo-Islamic architecture . The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah , may have been a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan . Other historians have mentioned him of Persian or Turkmen origin. According to the narrative presented by contemporary historian Firishta , Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II , although this is considered unfounded by modern historians. Another theory states he
9750-547: The first European conflicts where hand-held gunpowder weapons, like muskets , played a decisive role. The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors, primarily infantry, decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights, contributing to the infantry revolution. However, the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive. The final crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the advancing Ottoman Empire and lift
9875-510: The first native dynasty since the Sassanids to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several campaigns against the Safavids . What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The Silk Road , which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in
10000-436: The first sultan, began his work by expanding on two dargahs at Gulbarga commemorating Sufis , and added minarets to them. The first building to fully employ the characteristics of Adil Shahi architecture was a Jama Masjid built during the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah I . The primary Jami Masjid of Bijapur , however, was built under the rule of Ali I , and was commissioned in 1576. The largest of any structure of its type in
10125-592: The following decades and became widely known among scholars during the 1990s. At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. Feudalism declined in Europe, and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and of religious unity in Western Europe under the Roman Catholic Church . The old order
10250-454: The fort of Bidar, which was subsequently looted by Ismail and his troops. Another campaign the following year saw Ismail recapture Raichur and Mudgal from Vijayanagara, whose monarch Krishnadevaraya had recently died. Amir Barid, as he was present at the engagement, there agreed with Ismail to cede him the forts of Kalyani and Qandhar in exchange for Ismail's relinquishment of Bidar. Ismail was succeeded by Mallu Adil Shah in 1534, whose reign
10375-680: The global inventor of the mechanical printing press . Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology (1543), which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. His book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres ) began modern astronomy and sparked the Scientific Revolution . Another notable individual was Machiavelli , an Italian political philosopher, considered
10500-594: The greatest artist of Northern Renaissance), Titian from the Venetian school , Peter Paul Rubens of the Flemish Baroque traditions. Famous composers included Guillaume Du Fay , Heinrich Isaac , Josquin des Prez , Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina , Claudio Monteverdi , Jean-Baptiste Lully . Among the notable royalty of the time was Charles the Bold (1433–1477), the last Valois Duke of Burgundy , known as Charles
10625-481: The historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Johannes Gutenberg is credited as the first European to use movable type printing , around 1439, and as
10750-493: The invasion, Purushottam Dev expressed his willingness to pay homage, offering to disarm and present gifts. The Sultan accepted this homage, confirming Purushottam as the ruler of his patrimony. Subsequently, Muhammad Shah III besieged Hamvira Deva, the brother of the Gajapati, successfully ending his career in tragedy. These events, including the earlier revolt at Kondavidu, became integral aspects of Muhammad Shah III's engagement with
10875-475: The land gained under Ali I's reign had doubled the sultanate's holdings. Ali furthermore commenced diplomatic relations with the Mughals , Ottomans , and Safavids in his reign, and Eaton opines that these actions brought the sultanate into the dar al-islam . Ali I had no son, so his nephew Ibrahim II was set on the throne, then only nine years of age in 1580. Control of the regency was constantly fought over in
11000-520: The last Adil Shahi sultan, ruled next for fourteen troublesome years. His reign saw multiple civil wars and much internal strife and unrest, particularly over who should be his regent, as he was only four at the time of his accession. Khawas Khan, Sikandar's initial regent and leader of the Deccani faction, took control of the state, though was removed from power in place of his enemy. Shivaji formally founded an independent Maratha Kingdom, which went on to become
11125-407: The last medieval epic poet ) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare and communications, among others ), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons) and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status. Christianity was challenged at
11250-626: The long-term and returned home only with non-territorial rewards. In another conflict with the Portuguese, Ibrahim was forced to cede two ports in the fear that trade through Goa might be cut off from the Adil Shahis. His kingdom was invaded four times by the forces of the Ahmednagar Sultanate in his reign, who were the sultanate's greatest adversary; Sultan Burhan Nizam Shah I allied himself initially with Bidar in his first invasion, which saw no territorial losses for Bijapur, but Bidar, ruled by Ali Barid Shah I , later allied itself with Bijapur in
11375-474: The major Adil Shahi port of Goa and conquered it in 1510; Yusuf retook the settlement two months later, however, but the Portuguese again conquered it in November of that year. Yusuf died in 1510, between these two clashes with the Portuguese, when his son Ismail Adil Shah was still a boy. Ismail's regent at the time, Kamal Khan, staged a coup against him, but was unsuccessful and was killed. Ismail thus became
11500-467: The military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the Indian subcontinent , Mughal architecture , culture , and art reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had the world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of Western Europe and worth 25% of global GDP. By the mid-18th century, India was a major proto-industrializing region. Various Chinese dynasties controlled
11625-639: The north and created the Korean alphabet . During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral Yi Sun-sin , Korea's revered naval genius, who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called turtle ships . Because the ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion. During
11750-566: The official religion of his territorial holdings, following the lead of Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty . He conquered and annexed the Bahmani taraf of Gulbarga in 1504. Shortly after, he reinstated his decree of Shia practice a year after he had been forced to revoke it under threat of invasion. A colonial expedition of the Portuguese Empire , led by Afonso de Albuquerque , exerted pressure on
11875-527: The political balance of Europe. Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor secured the match for his son, the future Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor , with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria . A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from
12000-460: The same belligerents; Ahmednagar was besieged by Ali, but his forces voluntarily raised the siege; Hussain too was forced to abandon his siege of Kaliyani, and the only profiteer of the conflict was Vijayanagara, who gained territory from an invasion of Golconda. Vijayanagara additionally gained land from Bijapur through persuasion; this included the cities of Yadgir and Bagalkote . Wary of the growing power of Vijayanagara, Ali aligned his forces with
12125-521: The second invasion. This saw a quadruple alliance of Ahmednagar, Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda, Vijayanagara, and Darya Imad Shah of Berar. The war comprised numerous invasions by the belligerents of their opponents' states, and was a defeat for the Bijapuri–Bidar side, who were forced to cede one of the northern districts of the Bijapur Sultanate to Ahmednagar. Burhan and Ibrahim agreed to
12250-455: The siege. Ismail was defeated by Krishnadevaraya there in the Battle of Raichur ; though initially successful and having an advantage in artillery, the first major appearance of which in a South Asian battle, Ismail was routed by the Vijayanagara forces in a surprise counter-attack, scattering much of his forces. Not long after Ismail's retreat, Krishnadevaraya captured the fort of Raichur . In
12375-462: The significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Confederacy , founded in the southwest of present-day India, surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until
12500-603: The start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther 's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Early modern European history
12625-671: The state had been achieved as early as 1580. This was preceded by an agreement between the rulers of Bijapur and the Ahmednagar Sultanate, where they divided their spheres of influence such that the latter was let to conquer the Berar Sultanate, provided the Adil Shahis could expand southwards into the territory of the decaying Vijayanagara Empire without the hindrance of the Nizam Shahis. However, as Bidar did not fall under either of these spheres of influence, Malik Ambar, then de facto ruler of Ahmednagar, grew irate, and invaded Bijapur, reaching
12750-634: The state religion as Sunnism, and made drastic anti-Westerner court changes by abolishing the use of the Persian language in certain administrative tasks, though retaining it as the official language of the sultanate and expelling many of the Westerners and replacing them with the opposing faction, the Deccanis. Ibrahim also invaded the Vijayanagara Empire in his reign; he pillaged multiple cities and besieged their capital, Vijayanagara , but did not seize any territory in
12875-662: The sultanate in past Ahmednagari invasions, given the domestic and foreign strife Ahmednagar had been facing, but was declined. He subsequently invaded the Nizam Shahi kingdom, with assistance from Rama Raya , then de facto ruler of Vijayanagara, and Ibrahim Qutb Shah , and laid siege to Ahmednagar and other cities in the kingdom. Hussain sued for peace in 1561, and in return was forced to submit to Rama Raya and return Kaliyani to Ali Adil Shah. In 1563 Hussain attempted to regain Kaliyani and again laid siege to it. Another conflict ensued with
13000-412: The surrounding area were returned to Bijapur. The Vijayanagara military was demolished, and the power of the kingdom had been significantly diminished from the effects of the battle and as such was a shell of its former self. With this victory, Ali I then fortified Bijapur with a city wall, which facilitated the further centralization of authority. Subsequent architectural projects gave way to the growth of
13125-531: The time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between arquebus and musket except in size and strength, it was the term musket which remained in use up into the 1800s. In the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which
13250-578: The two states. This treaty ushered in a period of relative peace with the Mughals, allowing for attention to be focused on continued southern conquests. As a result, Bijapur reached its territorial peak, with its borders stretching from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal . The Sultanate of Bijapur came however into rapid decline halfway through Muhammad's reign, primarily due to the strain in relations with nobles and landholders, many of whom later deserted to work for
13375-470: The years following his accession; there were many years when his regent was the influential Kamal Khan, while later in his minority absolute control was wielded by the Habshi Dilawar Khan, who reverted the official sect of the sultanate to Sunni Islam, the final change in creed the state would undergo. Dilawar's supremacy ended with his deposition by Ibrahim II in 1590. Ibrahim's ensuing unhindered rule
13500-472: Was Firishta , who after entering Ibrahim's service in 1604 and gaining his trust, on the sultan's suggestion wrote his history of the medieval Deccan, the Tarikh-i Firishta , which serves as the basis for much of the modern historiography on the region and period. The later Nusrati , one of the foremost Deccani poets, wrote the romance work Gulshan-i 'Ishq under the patronage of Ali Adil Shah II , and
13625-580: Was Otto I . The last was Francis II , who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars . Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to
13750-604: Was a Turkman of the Aq-Quyunlu . Yusuf's bravery and personality raised him rapidly in Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah III 's favour, resulting in his appointment as the Governor of Bijapur . In 1490, Yusuf took advantage of the decline of Bahmani power to establish himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur, pursuing the same goal Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I had the same year. In 1503 he proclaimed Shia Islam to be
13875-676: Was appointed vizier and served as one of the regents under Makhduma-e-Jahan Nargis Begum . With Gawan, Muhammad Shah subjected most of the Konkan and defeated the Gajapati Kingdom in 1470, thus securing the west coast trade until the arrival of the Portuguese. At the same time, standard measurements and valuations of agricultural land were introduced, along with other policies to unify the sultanate. Unfortunately, these actions upset many powerful people who convinced Muhammad Shah III to execute Mahmud Gawan in 1481. The Bahmani invasion of Orissa in
14000-481: Was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi . The daimyōs (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior -caste of samurai , with the farmers , artisans , and traders ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the Sakoku policy. Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation. In some parts of
14125-613: Was destabilized by the Protestant Reformation , which caused a backlash that expanded the Inquisition and sparked the disastrous European wars of religion , which included the especially bloody Thirty Years' War and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the Peace of Westphalia . Along with the European colonization of the Americas , this period also contained
14250-619: Was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s. China during the Ming Dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year. In
14375-447: Was invaded by Mughal forces in 1657, under then viceroy Aurangzeb , who captured Bidar , multiple other forts, and reached Bijapur, though were forced to retreat before they could lay siege to the city; Aurangzeb was nevertheless able to annex much of the occupied territory, including Bidar. The stability of the Bijapur Sultanate was again affected by further troubles with the Marathas, who persisted with raids and rebellions. Afzal Khan ,
14500-416: Was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use; European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms. The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at
14625-520: Was largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi–Momoyama period . Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with Oda Nobunaga 's entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate , and it lasts until
14750-481: Was one of prosperity and patronage; Sufism thrived under his reign, with its adherents and many people of talent flocking to Bijapur, largely due to his own talent as a musician and poet. Syncretism , both cultural and religious , additionally reached its zenith under Ibrahim's rule, while the capital became one of the most prosperous in India; population estimates of the city in the latter half of Ibrahim's rule range as high as one million, and contrasting accounts from
14875-504: Was rooted in Persian miniature painting and culture and was usually baroque in style. In contrast to North Indian contemporary painting, it seldom depicted events and scenes of war, and rather focused on atmospheres and picturesque fantasies and dreams, straying away from logic in general. The Adil Shahi sultans promoted the development of writing in the Deccani language , and Bijapur was one of
15000-486: Was short-lived. He was installed by a prominent Bijapuri noble, Asad Khan , and is noted for his lack of competence. His indifference to taking care of the responsibilities of his role as sultan led Vijayanagara to invade the sultanate and seize the Raichur Doab from the Adil Shahis. Mallu Adil Shah was soon blinded and removed from power. Ibrahim Adil Shah I , the son of Ismail, succeeded Mallu in 1535. He reestablished
15125-665: Was the Khan of the Uzbeks. The lineage of the Afghan Pashtuns stretches back to the Hotaki dynasty. Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun ghazis (warriors for the faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the Lodhi dynasty and Suri dynasty . Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad . The Pashtuns later formed
15250-617: Was the eponymous Ibrahim Rauza , completed in 1626, comprising a mosque built in honour of his wife and a mausoleum for his dynasty. Mohammed Adil Shah facilitated the creation of the Gol Gumbaz , his own mausoleum and one of the greatest monuments in Bijapur. It is supported by large arched recesses and a massive dome, the largest in the Islamic world upon its near-completion at Muhammad's death in 1656. The last main Adil Shahi architectural project
15375-651: Was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy. In military area, he introduced the Black Army , one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force. Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519), Chevalier de Bayard (1476–1524), Franz von Sickingen (1481–1523) and Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562). Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being
15500-525: Was the sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate from 1463 to 1482. During his reign, he successfully invaded Orissa and made their Gajapati Purushottam Deva to surrender. He also made his brother Hamvira Deva surrender by besieging Kondavidu fort. Muhammad Shah III was between 9–10 years old when he ascended the throne on 30 July 1463 after the death of his brother, Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III . Mahmud Gawan
15625-558: Was the unfinished mausoleum of Ali Adil Shah II , the Bara Kaman , which stopped construction with his death in 1672. The Adil Shahis partook in miniature painting through the Bijapur school of Deccani painting . Miniature painting was virtually nonexistent in the Bijapur Sultanate prior to the reign of Ali I , but became widespread under his rule and flourished under the rule of Ibrahim II and his successors. The Bijapur school of painting
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