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62-604: In the art world , a Biennale ( Italian: [bi.enˈnaːle] ), Italian for "biennial" or "every other year", is a large-scale international contemporary art exhibition. The term was popularised by the Venice Biennale , which was first held in 1895, but the concept of such a large scale, and intentionally international event goes back to at least the 1851 Great Exhibition in London. Although typically used to refer to art festivals or exhibitions which occur every two years,

124-723: A crucial impact on the study of Early Netherlandish painting . In 1968, Art fairs in Europe became quite the fashion with the advent of the Cologne Art Fair which was sponsored by the Cologne Art Dealers Association. Because of the high admission standards of the Cologne fair a rival fair was organized in Düsseldorf which enabled less regarded galleries opportunity to meet with an international public. The fairs took place during

186-533: A level lower than that falling on the exhibit. Visible light levels should be maintained at between 50 lux and 100 lux depending on the light sensitivity of objects. An items level of toleration will depend on the inks or pigments being exposed and the duration of the exhibition time. A maximum exhibition length should initially be determined for each exhibited item based on its light sensitivity, anticipated light level, and its cumulative past and projected exhibition exposure. Light levels need to be measured when

248-432: A low UV output and when covered with plastic sleeves before exhibition. Though tungsten-halogen lamps are currently a favorite artificial lighting source, they still give off significant amounts of UV radiation; use these only with special UV filters and dimmers. Lights should be lowered or turned off completely when visitors are not in the exhibition space. The exhibition space's relative humidity (RH) should be set to

310-511: A major force in the marketing of contemporary fine art. Commercial art fairs are essentially temporary galleries that benefit from the attraction of public interest and competition between collectors. One of the most successful, Art Basel originated in Switzerland in the 1970s, expanded to Miami in 2000 and Hong Kong in 2010. Art Basel built on the model of Art Cologne , the first fair sponsored by and for commercial galleries; in contrast to

372-420: A mix of city marketing , internationalism, gentrification issues and destination culture, and the spectacular, large scale of the event. The situation of biennials has changed in the contemporary context: while at its origin in 1895 Venice was a unique cultural event, but since the 1990s hundreds of biennials have been organized across the globe. Given the ephemeral and irregular nature of some biennials, there

434-462: A modern work of art. Theory is needed due to the absence of narrative meaning in abstract art that was once provided by realistic art. At the beginning of the 21st century, Danto stated that contemporary art does not speak for itself, but has meaning only in reference to art-world discourse. Becker however notes that new theories of art may arise in order to account for the acceptance by the art world of works not fitting into older theories. An example

496-595: A number of roles for those actively involved in the creation of new works of fine art, but the exemplar remains the lone artist or a close collaboration. Historically, art was produced by the members of a workshop, often a master and a number of journeymen and apprentices. Contemporary artists allude to this group practice in their establishment of studio workshops or "factories", or by having works fabricated by industrial methods according to their plans and specifications. Some works, being of monumental scale, cannot be executed in any other way. In most of these group practices,

558-656: A period where exhibitions, often one-off shows, were crucial in exposing the public to new developments in art, and eventually Modern art . Important shows of this type were the Armory Show in New York City in 1913 and the London International Surrealist Exhibition in 1936. Museums started holding large loan exhibitions of historic art in the late 19th century, as also did the Royal Academy, but

620-464: A physically and chemically secure environment. Vertical cases are acceptable for small or single-sheet items, and horizontal cases can be used for a variety of objects, including three-dimensional items such as opened or closed books, and flat paper items. All these objects can be arranged simultaneously in one horizontal case under a unified theme. Materials used for case construction should be chosen carefully because component materials can easily become

682-595: A pretext the wedding anniversary of the Italian king and followed up to several national exhibitions organised after Italy unification in 1861. The Biennale immediately put forth issues of city marketing, cultural tourism and urban regeneration, as it was meant to reposition Venice on the international cultural map after the crisis due to the end of the Grand Tour model and the weakening of the Venetian school of painting. Furthermore,

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744-418: A significant source of pollutants or harmful fumes for displayed objects. Outgassing from materials used in the construction of the exhibition case and/or fabrics used for lining the case can be destructive. Pollutants may cause visible deterioration, including discoloration of surfaces and corrosion . Examples of evaluative criteria to be used in deeming materials suitable for use in exhibit display could be

806-476: A value between 35% and 50%. The maximum acceptable variation should be 5% on either side of this range. Seasonal changes of 5% are also allowed. The control of relative humidity is especially critical for vellum and parchment materials, which are extremely sensitive to changes in relative humidity and may contract violently and unevenly if displayed in too dry an environment. For preservation purposes, cooler temperatures are always recommended. The temperature of

868-689: A wavelength below 400 nm (ultraviolet radiation) be limited to no more than 75 microwatts per lumen at 10 to 100 lux. Furthermore, exposure to natural light is undesirable because of its intensity and high UV content. When such exposure is unavoidable, preventative measures must be taken to control UV radiation, including the use of blinds, shades, curtains, UV filtering films, and UV-filtering panels in windows or cases. Artificial light sources are safer options for exhibition. Among these sources, incandescent lamps are most suitable because they emit little or no UV radiation. Fluorescent lamps , common in most institutions, may be used only when they produce

930-404: A window cut in the top board to enable the object to be seen, can be used to support and enhance the display of single sheet or folded items. Backing layers of archival cardboard should be thick enough to protect objects. Moreover, any protective glazing used should never come in direct contact with objects. Frames should be well-sealed and hung securely, allowing a space for air circulation between

992-409: Is a distinction between commercial and non-commercial exhibitions. A commercial exhibition or trade fair is often referred to as an art fair that shows the work of artists or art dealers where participants generally have to pay a fee. A vanity gallery is an exhibition space of works in a gallery that charges the artist for use of the space. Temporary museum exhibitions typically display items from

1054-538: Is at stake in contemporary biennales is the diplomatic and international relations potential as well as urban regeneration plans. Besides being mainly focused on the present (the "here and now" where the cultural event takes place and their effect of "spectacularisation of the everyday"), because of their site-specificity cultural events may refer back to, produce or frame the history of the site and communities' collective memory . A strong and influent symbol of biennales and of large-scale international exhibitions in general

1116-649: Is constantly changing as works of art previously excluded move into the " avant garde " and then into mainstream culture. Art exhibition An art exhibition is traditionally the space in which art objects (in the most general sense) meet an audience . The exhibit is universally understood to be for some temporary period unless, as is occasionally true, it is stated to be a "permanent exhibition". In American English , they may be called "exhibit", "exposition" (the French word) or "show". In UK English, they are always called "exhibitions" or "shows", and an individual item in

1178-632: Is cumulative and irreversible. Two trusted sources – the National Information Standard Organization's Environmental Conditions for Exhibiting Library and Archival Materials, and the British Library's Guidance for Exhibiting Library and Archive Materials – have established indispensable criteria to help curtail the deleterious effects of exhibitions on library and archival materials. These criteria may be divided into five main preservation categories: Environmental concerns of

1240-408: Is essential that they be displayed with care. Not all materials are able withstand the hardships of display, and therefore each piece needs to be assessed carefully to determine its ability to withstand the rigors of an exhibition. In particular, when exhibited items are archival artifacts or paper-based objects, preservation considerations need be emphasized because damage and change in such materials

1302-441: Is little consensus on the exact number of biennials in existence at any given time. Furthermore, while Venice was a unique agent in the presentation of contemporary art, since the 1960s several museums devoted to contemporary art are exhibiting the contemporary scene on a regular basis. Another point of difference concerns 19th century internationalism in the arts, that was brought into question by post-colonial debates and criticism of

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1364-488: Is most often distributed though intermediaries. An art dealer is the intermediary between artists, private collectors and institutional buyers. While some dealers may be consultant advising individual clients, dealers usually own or operate art galleries . Hosting public exhibitions and opening celebrations became part of the social function of the art world in addition to their marketing functions. The international art fair, occurring typically every two years, has become

1426-399: Is not the display or sale of art, such as a coffeehouse . An important distinction is noted between those exhibits where some or all of the works are for sale, normally in private art galleries, and those where they are not. Sometimes the event is organized on a specific occasion, like a birthday, anniversary or commemoration. There are different kinds of art exhibitions, in particular there

1488-632: Is the Crystal Palace , the gigantic and futuristic London architecture that hosted the Great Exhibition in 1851. According to philosopher Peter Sloterdijk , the Crystal Palace is the first attempt to condense the representation of the world in a unitary exhibition space, where the main exhibit is society itself in an a-historical, spectacular condition. The Crystal Palace main motives were the affirmation of British economic and national leadership and

1550-410: Is the failure of imitation theories, in which art was judged solely by it faithful representation of nature, to account for works which used form and color to express emotions, giving rise to formalism . Danto had considerable influence on aesthetic philosophy and especially upon George Dickie 's institutional theory of art . Dickie defines an art work as an artifact "which has had conferred upon it

1612-715: The academic art promoted by the Paris Salon, always more rigid than London, was felt to be stifling French art, alternative exhibitions, now generally known as the Salon des Refusés ("Salon of the Refused") were held, most famously in 1863, when the government allowed them an annex to the main exhibition for a show that included Édouard Manet 's Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) and James McNeill Whistler's Girl in White . This began

1674-609: The 19th century. The emergence of many of the elements, such as galleries, critics, and museums; as well as the term fine arts ( Beaux Arts ) date from the 18th century. An art world, as with any segment of society, is defined in terms of mutually understood conventions ( social norms , roles , and institutions ) that are the basis for cooperative activity between members of a group who may not interact directly. Howard S. Becker describes an art world as "the network of people whose cooperative activity, organized via their joint knowledge of conventional means of doing things, produces

1736-532: The Gardens where the Biennale takes place were an abandoned city area that needed to be re-functionalised. In cultural terms, the Biennale was meant to provide on a biennial basis a platform for discussing contemporary art practices that were not represented in fine arts museums at the time. The early Biennale model already included some key points that are still constitutive of large-scale international art exhibitions today:

1798-530: The Havana Biennial in 1984 is widely considered an important counterpoint to the Venetian model for its prioritization of artists working in the Global South and curatorial rejection of the national pavilion model. In the term's most commonly used context of major recurrent art exhibitions : Art world Rather than being a term coined in the 20th century, art world can be found in publications from

1860-477: The London scene in 1805, holding two annual exhibitions, one of new British art for sale, and one of loans from the collections of its aristocratic patrons. These exhibitions received lengthy and detailed reviews in the press, which were the main vehicle for the art criticism of the day. Critics as distinguished as Denis Diderot and John Ruskin held their readers attention by sharply divergent reviews of different works, praising some extravagantly and giving others

1922-463: The United States. Following the advent of Wash Art, many fairs developed throughout the United States. Although preservation issues are often disregarded in favor of other priorities during the exhibition process, they should certainly be considered so that possible damage to the collection is minimized or limited. As all objects in the library exhibition are unique and to some extent vulnerable, it

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1984-462: The authenticity associated with fine art is maintained by the artist either doing the essential work, closely supervising others, and giving final approval to the finished piece by signing it. Artwork by women was largely excluded from the highest levels of the art world until the feminist movement of the 1970s. The primary socialization of individuals into the role of artists is by attendance at art school. The value of contemporary art depends upon

2046-401: The best of international art; there are now many of these. A travelling exhibition is an exhibition seen at several venues, sometimes across the world. Exhibitions of new or recent art can be juried, invitational, or open. The art exhibition has played a crucial part in the market for new art since the 18th and 19th centuries. The Paris Salon , open to the public from 1737, rapidly became

2108-423: The binding structure. Because exhibited items are often of special interest, they demand a high level of security to reduce the risk of loss from theft or vandalism. Exhibition cases should be securely locked. In addition, cases may be glazed with a material that hinders penetration and that when broken does not risk shards of glass falling on the exhibits. Whenever possible, the exhibition area should be patrolled;

2170-572: The book hinge; cradles, which support bound volumes as they lay open without stress to the binding structure; and polyester film strips, which help to secure open leaves. Textblock supports are best used in conjunction with book cradles where the textblock is greater than 1/2 inch, or where the textblock noticeably sags. Regardless of its method of support, however, any book that is kept open for long periods can cause damage. One should turn an exhibited book's pages every few days in order to protect pages from overexposure to light and spread any strain on

2232-401: The case (for example, polyester blend fabric), and any adhesives used in the process, should also be tested to determine any risk. Using internal buffers and pollutant absorbers, such as silica gel , activated carbon , or zeolite , is a good way to control relative humidity and pollutants. Buffers and absorbers should be placed out of sight, in the base or behind the backboard of a case. If

2294-615: The case is to be painted, it is recommended oil paints be avoided; acrylic or latex paint is preferable. There are two kinds of objects displayed at the library and archival exhibition – bound materials and unbound materials. Bound materials include books and pamphlets , and unbound materials include manuscripts , cards, drawings, and other two-dimensional items. The observance of proper display conditions will help minimize any potential physical damage. All items displayed must be adequately supported and secured. Unbound materials, usually single-sheet items, need to be attached securely to

2356-469: The contemporary art "ethnic marketing", and also challenged the Venetian and World Fair's national representation system. As a consequence of this, Eurocentric tendency to implode the whole word in an exhibition space, which characterises both the Crystal Palace and the Venice Biennale, is affected by the expansion of the artistic geographical map to scenes traditionally considered as marginal. The birth of

2418-415: The creation of moments of spectacle. In this respect, 19th century World fairs provided a visual crystallization of colonial culture and were, at the same time, forerunners of contemporary theme parks. The Venice Biennale , a periodical large-scale cultural event founded in 1895, served as an archetype of the biennales. Meant to become a World Fair focused on contemporary art , the Venice Biennale used as

2480-511: The direction of Elias Felluss, in Washington DC organized the first American dealer art fair. "The Washington International Art Fair" or "Wash Art" for brevity. This American fair met with fierce opposition by those galleries interested in maintaining distribution channels for European artwork already in place. The Washington fair introduced the European idea of dealer fairs to art dealers throughout

2542-447: The display space should not exceed 72 °F. A lower temperature of down to 50 °F can be considered safe for a majority of objects. The maximum acceptable variation in this range is 5 °F, meaning that the temperature should not go above 77 °F and below 45 °F. As temperature and relative humidity are interdependent, temperature should be reasonably constant so that relative humidity can be maintained as well. Controlling

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2604-459: The environment with 24-hour air conditioning and dehumidification is the most effective way of protecting an exhibition from serious fluctuations. One factor that influences how well materials will fare in an exhibition is the length of the show. The longer an item is exposed to harmful environmental conditions, the more likely that it will experience deterioration. Many museums and libraries have permanent exhibitions , and installed exhibitions have

2666-417: The exhibition is prepared. UV light meters will check radiation levels in an exhibit space, and data event loggers help determine visible light levels over an extended period of time. Blue wool standards cards can also be utilized to predict the extent to which materials will be damaged during exhibits. UV radiation must be eliminated to the extent it is physically possible; it is recommended that light with

2728-585: The exhibition space; Length of the exhibition; Individual cases; Display methods used on individual objects; and Security. The main concerns of exhibition environments include light , relative humidity , and temperature . Light wavelength , intensity , and duration contribute collectively to the rate of material degradation in exhibitions. The intensity of visible light in the display space should be low enough to avoid object deterioration, but bright enough for viewing. A patron's tolerance of low-level illumination can be aided by reducing ambient light levels to

2790-578: The fall months. This rivalry continued for a few years which provided the Basel Art Fair the opportunity to interject the Basel fair in early summer. These fairs became extremely important to galleries, dealers and publishers as they provided the possibility of worldwide distribution. Düsseldorf and Cologne merged their efforts. Basel soon became the most important art fair. In 1976, the Felluss Gallery under

2852-415: The frame and the wall. The most common way to display bound materials is closed and lying horizontally. If a volume is shown open, the object should be open only as much as its binding allows. Common practice is to open volumes at an angle no greater than 135°. There are some types of equipment that help support volumes as they displayed openly: blocks or wedges, which hold a book cover to reduce stain at

2914-735: The government sponsored world's fairs that began in the Victorian era . One of the latter, the Venice Biennale founded in 1895, continues to operate as a public foundation with national pavilions . The tradition of auctioning works of art grew from the difficulty of determining the price of rare and unique objects. While estimates of market value are made for other purposes, such as taxation, charitable donations, and estates; in recent years prices paid at auctions have exceeded such estimates. In 1964 critic and philosopher Arthur Danto published an essay defining "The Artworld," in terms of artistic theory. Danto writes: "these days one might not be aware he

2976-406: The key factor in determining the reputation, and so the price, of the French artists of the day. The Royal Academy in London, beginning in 1769, soon established a similar grip on the market, and in both countries artists put great efforts into making pictures that would be a success, often changing the direction of their style to meet popular or critical taste. The British Institution was added to

3038-450: The kind of art works that art world is noted for." Becker admits this definition is tautological, but is useful in understanding how works of art are produced and consumed. Sarah Thornton , also a sociologist, describes the art world as "a loose network of overlapping subcultures held together by a belief in art". They span the globe but cluster in art capitals such as New York City , London , Los Angeles , and Berlin . There are

3100-458: The length of the exhibition time and the light level of the display, may prevent objects from being exhibited too frequently. Displayed items need to be inspected regularly for evidence of damage or change. It is recommended that high-quality facsimiles of especially delicate or fragile materials be displayed in lieu of originals for longer exhibitions. Library or archival materials are usually displayed in display cases or frames . Cases provide

3162-496: The modern "blockbuster" museum exhibition, with long queues and a large illustrated catalogue, is generally agreed to have been introduced by the exhibitions of artifacts from the tomb of Tutankhamun held in several cities in the 1970s. Many exhibitions, especially in the days before good photographs were available, are important in stimulating research in art history ; the exhibition held in Bruges in 1902 (poster illustrated below) had

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3224-609: The most savage put-downs they could think of. Many of the works were already sold, but success at these exhibitions was a crucial way for an artist to attract more commissions. Among important early one-off loan exhibitions of older paintings were the Art Treasures Exhibition, Manchester 1857 , and the Exhibition of National Portraits in London, at what is now the Victoria and Albert Museum , held in three stages in 1866–1868. As

3286-826: The mounts, unless matted or encapsulated. Metal fasteners, pins, screws, and thumbtacks should not come in direct contact with any exhibit items. Instead, photo corners , polyethylene , or polyester film straps may hold the object to the support. Objects may also be encapsulated in polyester film, though old and untreated acidic papers should be professionally deacidified before encapsulation. Avoid potential slippage during encapsulation – when possible, use ultrasonic or heat seals. For objects that need to be hung (and that may require more protection than lightweight polyester film), matting would be an effective alternative. Objects in frames should be separated from harmful materials through matting , glazing , and backing layers. Matting, which consists of two pH-neutral or alkaline boards with

3348-471: The museum's own collection on a particular period, theme or topic, supplemented by loans from other collections, mostly those of other museums. They normally include no items for sale; they are distinguished from the museum's permanent displays, and most large museums set aside a space for temporary exhibitions. Exhibitions in commercial galleries are often entirely made up of items that are for sale, but may be supplemented by other items that are not. Typically,

3410-478: The potential of contact-transfer of harmful substances, water solubility or dry-transfer of dyes , the dry-texture of paints, pH , and abrasiveness . New cases may be preferred, constructed of safe materials such as metal, plexiglass, or some sealed woods. Separating certain materials from the display section of an exhibition case by lining relevant surfaces with an impermeable barrier film will help protect items from damage. Any fabrics that line or decorate

3472-423: The potential to be on the view without any changes for years. Damage from a long exhibition is usually caused by light. The degree of deterioration is different for each respective object. For paper-based items, the suggested maximum length of time that they should be on display is three months per year, or 42 kilolux hours of light per year – whichever comes first. An exhibition log report, including records of

3534-559: The reputation of the artist, which most often begins with earning an MFA from a select number of art school programs. Some self-taught or outsider artists may gain recognition by being discovered by a dealer, while others are denied inclusion. The production of art depends upon its distribution to others in order to provide the economic support of that production. In the past, this was done through patronage or commissions from collectors. Artists may also do this themselves either by direct sales or through cooperative efforts. Contemporary art

3596-410: The show is an "exhibit". Such expositions may present pictures , drawings , video , sound , installation , performance , interactive art , new media art or sculptures by individual artists, groups of artists or collections of a specific form of art . The art works may be presented in museums , art halls, art clubs or private art galleries , or at some place the principal business of which

3658-421: The status of candidate for appreciation by some person or persons acting in behalf of a certain social institution (the artworld)." The notion of the singular art world is problematic, since Becker and others show art worlds are, instead, independent multiplicities scattered worldwide that are always in flux: there is no "center" to the art world any more. The art world, along with the definition of fine art,

3720-642: The term is not always applied strictly. Since the 1990s, the terms biennale and biennial have both been used to refer to large-scale international survey shows of contemporary art that recur at regular intervals ( Documenta is held every five years, and Skulptur Projekte Münster every ten). The term has also derived a suffix for other creative events, as in "Berlinale" for the Berlin International Film Festival and " Viennale " for Vienna 's international film festival, both of which are held annually. According to author Federica Martini, what

3782-401: The visitor has to pay (extra on top of the basic museum entrance cost) to enter a museum exhibition, but not a commercial one in a gallery. Retrospectives look back over the work of a single artist; other common types are individual exhibitions or "solo shows" , and group exhibitions or "group shows"). The Biennale is a large exhibition held every two years, often intending to gather together

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3844-406: Was on artistic terrain without an artistic theory to tell him so. And part of the reason for this lies in the fact that terrain is constituted artistic in virtue of artistic theories, so that one use of theories, in addition to helping us discriminate art from the rest, consists in making art possible". In "The Painted Word" Tom Wolfe went further in saying that without a theory, the viewer cannot see

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