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24-486: The hallmark of Bhumija style is a square plan that is not divided, but instead rotated around its center and this rotation is stopped at regular intervals as the superstructure rises vertically. By adjusting the pace of rotation and the interval at which the rotation stops, many creative variations can be implemented. Each tier is called a bhumi . The general rule in Hindu texts is that the bhadras and salas remain parallel to

48-476: A discussion of vastu mandalas (chapters 11–15). Others are practical manuals on architecture and construction; for example, house (chapter 37), soil preparation (chapter 8), wood and timber for carpentry (chapter 16), laying bricks (chapter 41) and others. Later chapters (70–83) are dedicated to sculpture and painting. The Samarangana Sutradhara acknowledges and builds upon older Indian texts on temple architecture, and vastu in general, states Adam Hardy –

72-514: A million tons of ores. The Zawar plants, states Deborah Stein citing Craddock and other scholars, yielded many tens of thousands of tons of zinc. These operations represented one of the world's oldest known industrial scale refining plants of zinc. However, these were not entirely secular structure because these pre-17th century zinc production operations integrated a Shiva (Bhairava) temple in the center, which were then surrounded by many condensation towers with bhumija architecture. The wealth created by

96-419: A scholar of Hindu temple architecture and related historic texts. It provides one of the most complete list and descriptions of 64 designs of Indian temples as they existed by the 11th century. The text also influenced later Indian treatises such as the 12th-century Aparajitaprccha . The text is significant in its discussion about Nagara, Dravida , Bhumija and other diversified styles of Hindu temples. It

120-532: A scholar of Buddhist and Hindu Art history, published examples of proto-Bhumija temples from the 7th to 8th-century CE. This has shifted the proposed timeline of when and where the Bhumija architecture was originally explored. According to Stadtner's examples, the western parts of dakshina-kosala (modern Chhattisgarh ) – to the east of Malwa – over the Panduvamsi period (Pratihara, Kachchapa ghata tradition) may have been

144-463: A superstructure that looks elegantly smooth Prasada from distance, but surprises the viewer with meticulously detailed carvings at a close distance. The Bhumija may be implemented in one of two ways, either for the spire, or the entire Vimana or shrine. The latter approach gives Bhumija sub-category of the Nagara architecture, and when integrated with the jagati (platform) or the pitha (ground), it makes

168-419: Is a compound word that literally means "architect of human dwellings", but can also be decomposed to an alternate meaning as "stage manager for battlefields" – possibly a play of words to recognize its royal author. Three manuscripts of Samarangana Sutradhara were discovered in early 20th century, while others were found later. They vary somewhat and all survive in an incomplete form. The most complete version

192-472: Is a square plan, which is constantly rotated in a circular pattern to yield the entire spire. The Bhumija style spread with variations into north Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and into the south. It is also seen close to Mahanadi valley in the east, such as Arang, Chhattisgarh and a few post 11th-century temples in Odisha. Near Pune, for example, both the intricately carved Mallikarjun Temple at Loni Bhapkar, and

216-424: Is named after the late Mr. Mohan Kumar Manglam. A five-day Mela , which starts four days before Dashehra , is organised here. Dashehra is celebrated by burning a big 'Ravan's dummy', which entertains a crowd of thousands from nearby towns. Zawar is in a mountainous region. It features a rock garden, and five centrally-located temples. Zawar is systematically divided into colonies and Hindustan Zinc Ltd has provided

240-428: Is one likely copied and recompiled in the 15th century. This manuscript has 7,430 shlokas (verses) set in 83 adhyayas (chapters). A notable aspect of each adhyaya is that it starts with a verse composed in anustubh meter ( chanda in Hindu texts) and ends with a verse in a longer meter, typically upajati or vasantatilaka . The Samarangana Sutradhara is among the few important texts that have survived on

264-477: Is particularly notable for the sections that match with the unfinished 11th-century temple in Bhojpur ( Madhya Pradesh ) and the earliest known architectural drawings of a Hindu temple engraved on the surrounding rocks. The Samarangana Sutradhara has a chapter on the art of mechanical contrivances, the yantras (chapter 31). Samarangana Sutradhara includes chapters about the decoration of palaces, which describes

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288-439: The 12th-century. Thus, Bhumija architecture had already been invented by the 11th-century, was successful and widely adopted to appear in 11th-century Sanskrit texts on architecture. According to Mate, in an article published in 1975, it is likely that Bhumija style was explored in the 9th-century and became established by the 10th-century. In the 1980s after his travels in remote eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh, Donald Stadtner –

312-405: The garbhagriya (sanctum's square in the cardinal direction), a rule that gives the superstructure aesthetic appeal and makes it easier to visually follow. The faces of the salas are also cut and aligned to the circle. This simultaneous use of the square and circle principle is the distinct feature of bhumija architecture. Some early temples skipped the periodic stop and decorations above, leading to

336-534: The vatta (circular), navanga (orthogonal), chatursa (orthogonal, four offsets), astasala (eight offsets) and others. Sixteen variants of the Bhumija architecture are described in the Samarangana Sutradhara . Adam Hardy has published the Sanskrit verses that explain these and provide the mathematical ratios therein, with translations by Mattia Salvini. The earliest known example of the Bhumija style are

360-481: The 13th to 17th-century to condense zinc metal from vapors generated by heating locally found zinc ores mixed with soot, borax, resins, marking nuts and other local products. These recipes are found in the Rasa ratna samuccaya – a 13th-century Sanskrit text attributed to Vagabhatacharya . The first plant was commissioned by Maharana Laksh Singh in the 14th-century. The brick and stone-based bhumija shaped towers processed over

384-437: The construction of mechanical contrivances ( automata ), including mechanical bees and birds, fountains shaped like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology. It has some visionary verses as well, such as envisioning machines that could fly. However, the author states that he will "not explain how to construct such machines, for

408-475: The first experimenters and innovators on a stellate plan, that ultimately was perfected in Malwa by the 9th to 10th-century. According to Adam Hardy – a scholar of Hindu and Jain temple architecture, most surviving examples of pre-13th century Hindu and Jain temples follow the guidelines in Samarangana Sutradhara . The Aparajitaprccha text describes variations with the Bhumija style. These include sub-styles such as

432-531: The oldest zinc mines of the world. It is declared as the National Geological Monument . Zawar is a township created by mining company Hindustan Zinc Limited , for extraction of zinc and lead. An 80 MW power plant provides electricity for mining zinc and lead from three major mines. There is also a large football stadium which annually hosts a national soccer tournament in January. The tournament

456-615: The ruins of a Hindu temples group south of the Narmada river, at village Un between Segaon and Khargone. Eight of these are in Bhumija style. The 11th-century Nilakanthesvara (Udayesvara) temple in Udaypur, Madhya Pradesh (north of Bhopal ) is the best preserved and finest illustration of the Bhumija style. The sikhara of the Nilakanthesvara has a stellate plan with four latas (quadrants) inside which are five rows of aedicule. At each level there

480-502: The sake of secrecy, and not due to lack of knowledge." Zawar Zawar is a settlement located in Udaipur district , Rajasthan , India, approximately 40 km from the lake city Udaipur . It stretches some 10 kilometers along the banks of the Gomati River . It is close to Dhebar Lake , India's second largest artificial lake, after Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar dam). it is one of

504-630: The temple appear as if it is emerging out of the earth. Bhumija is a Sanskrit word that literally means "from ground, earth, land", or alternatively "storey". In architectural context, the Bhumija style is discussed in chapter 65 of the Samarangana Sutradhara – an 11th-century Hindu text on classical temple and secular architecture ( vastu ). It is one of the fourteen styles of north Indian Nagara temple architecture discussed in Aparajitaprccha – another Hindu text on architecture published in

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528-637: The temple in Palasdev, are Bhumija orthogonal variants. It is also common in Hoysala temples found all over Karnataka and nearby areas. However, with some exceptions, most Hoysala temples use it primarily for smaller temples within a larger temple complex. Other examples: The Bhumija architecture was deployed by Hindu artisans and Jain financiers to build zinc smelting operations in Zawar (Jawar, Javar), Rajasthan. These plants with Bhumija architecture were constructed between

552-440: The theory and practice of Hindu temple architecture in north, central and western Indian subcontinent (chapters 52–67). Its chapters also include discussions on town planning, house architecture, iconography, painting ( chitra ), and sculpture arts ( shilpa ). Some chapters include Hindu legends such as of sleeping Vishnu as it explains its ideas, as well as verses on Hindu philosophies such as Samkhya and Vedanta . It includes

576-526: The zinc operations in Zawar helped Jains build Jaina and Vaishnava temples nearby, many with bhumija architecture. Samarangana Sutradhara Samarangana Sutradhara ( IAST : Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra ) is an 11th-century poetic treatise on classical Indian architecture ( vastu shastra ) written in the Sanskrit language attributed to Paramara King Bhoja of Dhar . The title Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra

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