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95-693: The camp was created in 1835, shortly after the independence of Belgium from the Netherlands . It acquired a permanent character in 1850. During World War I and World War II it was occupied by German troops . In May 1944 the camp was bombed by the Allied forces, damaging some blocks. A part of the Camp was also used as a prisoner of war camp by the Germans. A museum celebrating the camp's history exists at what used to be its hospital building. The Beverloo Soldiers' Council

190-425: A Belgium sports venue is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Belgian Limburg location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a Summer Olympics venue is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Belgian Revolution The Belgian Revolution ( French : Révolution belge , Dutch : Belgische Revolutie/opstand/omwenteling )

285-580: A "scrap of paper". Britain declared war on Germany the same day. As early as 1830 a movement started for the reunification of Belgium and the Netherlands, called Orangism (after the Dutch royal color of orange ), which was active in Flanders and Brussels. But industrial cities, like Liège, also had a strong Orangist faction. The movement met with strong disapproval from the authorities. Between 1831 and 1834, 32 incidents of violence against Orangists were mentioned in

380-438: A European federation had been already raised by figures such as Immanuel Kant , Gottfried Leibniz , and Lord Grenville . The Concert of Europe drew upon their ideas and the notion of a balance of power in international relations , so that the ambitions of each great power would be restrained by the others: The Concert of Europe, as it began to be called at the time, had ... a reality in international law, which derived from

475-705: A Polish state by establishing the Duchy of Warsaw in ethnically Polish lands to help fight the Prussians, Russians, and Austrians. The Allies supported nationalist movements in Spain and Germany to encourage resistance against French-established governments there. Along with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, the Concert of Europe was in many ways an effort to return as far as possible to

570-621: A detail from Wappers ' painting Scene of the September Days in 1830 . Great Powers The Concert of Europe was a general agreement among the great powers of 19th-century Europe to maintain the European balance of power , political boundaries, and spheres of influence . Never a perfect unity and subject to disputes and jockeying for position and influence, the Concert was an extended period of relative peace and stability in Europe following

665-640: A more liberal political philosophy and did not wish to pledge itself to the policing of continental Europe. Britain did ratify the Quadruple Alliance , signed on 20 November 1815, the same day as the Second Treaty of Paris was signed, which later became the Quintuple Alliance when France joined in 1818 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. There has been much debate between historians as to which treaty

760-580: A negotiated settlement. The efforts of the other Powers, primarily Britain, France and Russia at the London Conference of 1864 failed. The collapse of the Concert was further sealed when the war was concluded with a trilateral treaty between Prussia, Austria, and Denmark rather than a larger Congress involving the other Great Powers. The Second Schleswig War set the stage for the subsequent wars of German unification (the Austro-Prussian War and

855-610: A new international world order which was based on two main ideologies: restoring and safeguarding power balancing in Europe; and collective responsibility for peace and stability in Europe among the "Great Powers". The 1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle formed the Quintuple Alliance by adding France to the Quadruple Alliance, which had comprised the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The ability for this to happen

950-575: A standard treaty, and the great powers did not invite any minor allies to sign it. The primary objective was to bind the signatories to support the terms of the Second Treaty of Paris for 20 years. It included a provision for the High Contracting Parties to "renew their meeting at fixed periods...for the purpose of consulting on their common interests" which were the "prosperity of the Nations, and

1045-534: A threat of liberalism. Other powers present at this Congress include Spain, Naples, and Sicily. At this Congress, the Troppau Protocol was signed, which stated that if States which have undergone a change of government due to a revolution threaten other States, then they are ipso facto no longer members of the European Alliance if their exclusion will help to maintain legal order and stability. Furthermore,

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1140-688: Is typically viewed in two distinct phases: the first from 1814 to through the early 1860s, and the second from the 1880s to 1914. The first phase, particularly before the Revolutions of 1848 , is sometimes known as the Age of Metternich , due to the influence of the Austrian chancellor's conservatism and the dominance of Austria within the German Confederation , or as the European Restoration , because of

1235-562: The Armée du Nord and besieged the citadel taking it on 23 December 1832. William I would refuse to recognize a Belgian state until April 1839, when he had to yield under pressure by the Treaty of London and reluctantly recognized a border which, with the exception of Limburg and Luxembourg, was basically the border of 1790. On 19 April 1839 the Treaty of London signed by the European powers (including

1330-637: The Austrian and Russian Empires , formed the Holy Alliance on 26 September 1815, with the express intent of preserving Christian social values and traditional monarchism. Only three notable princes did not sign: Pope Pius VII (it was not Catholic enough), Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire (too Christian), and the British Prince Regent because his government was a constitutional monarchy with

1425-544: The Belgian Constitution was proclaimed. However, no actual monarch yet sat on the throne. The Congress refused to consider any candidate from the Dutch ruling house of Orange-Nassau . Eventually the Congress drew up a shortlist of three candidates, all of whom were French. This itself led to political opposition, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg , who had been considered at an early stage but dropped due to French opposition,

1520-716: The Congress of Berlin following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 , despite Russia's clear victory on the battlefield and separate peace treaty signed with the Ottomans, the other Great Powers demanded concessions from the Russians and redrew the map of the Balkans based on a broad agreement rather than the terms Russia had imposed militarily. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 is often seen as

1615-430: The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), was dominated by the five great powers of Europe: Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Initially envisioning regular Congresses among the great powers to resolve potential disputes, in practice, Congresses were held on an ad hoc basis and were generally successful in preventing or localizing conflicts. The more conservative members of the Concert of Europe, members of

1710-514: The First Schleswig War ended in a restoration of the status quo ante. However, by 1863, when a succession crisis caused Denmark to breach the terms of the treaty and attempt to incorporate Schleswig into Denmark, the German powers, Austria and Prussia, responding to national sentiment across the German Confederation and with the excuse that Denmark had violated the existing treaties, both opposed

1805-551: The Franco-Prussian War ) which did not result in interventions by any other great powers and which resulted in significant changes to the map of Europe. These wars, and the wars of Italian unification were concluded among the participants without the approval of non-participant powers in Congresses or Conferences to maintain the balance of power. While various multilateral conferences took place during this period – most notably,

1900-516: The Great Powers . The resulting 1830 London Conference of major European powers recognized Belgian independence. Following the installation of Leopold I as King of the Belgians in 1831, King William made a belated attempt to reconquer Belgium and restore his position through a military campaign. This Ten Days' Campaign failed because of French military intervention. The Dutch accepted the decision of

1995-603: The Group of Seven and other multi-lateral summits and organizations. The Concert of Europe arose from the coalitions which fought against revolutionary and Napoleonic France. The great powers of Austria , Prussia , Russia and the United Kingdom , had combined with a number of minor powers to defeat Napoleon for the final time in the Hundred Days . In the wake of this victory, these four great powers formalized their partnership in

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2090-642: The Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, and Prussia), used the system to oppose revolutionary and liberal movements and weaken the forces of nationalism. The formal Congress System fell apart in the 1820s but peace between the Great Powers continued and occasional meetings reminiscent of the Congresses continued to be held at times of crisis. The Concert faced a major challenge in the Revolutions of 1848 which sought national independence, national unity, and liberal and democratic reforms. The 1848 Revolutions were ultimately checked without major territorial changes. However,

2185-552: The London Conference of 1867 which forestalled war over the Luxembourg Crisis – the cooperative nature of the Concert and its focus on stability was significantly diminished during this time of conflict. The second phase of the Concert of Europe is typically described as beginning in the 1871 and ending in 1914 with the outbreak of World War I. 1871 is the year in which the German and Italian unifications were completed and also

2280-536: The Quadruple Alliance . In time, France under the Bourbon Restoration was established as a fifth member of the Concert, after the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the occupation of France and established the Quintuple Alliance . The Ottoman Empire was later admitted to the Concert of Europe in 1856 with the Treaty of Paris following the Crimean War recognized and guaranteed Ottoman territory. The idea of

2375-611: The Wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars which had consumed the continent since the 1790s. There is considerable scholarly dispute over the exact nature and duration of the Concert. Some scholars argue that it fell apart nearly as soon as it began in the 1820s when the great powers disagreed over the handling of liberal revolts in Italy, while others argue that it lasted until

2470-645: The aristocracy , the Concert of Europe also sought to tamp down on liberal and democratic movements across the continent. Finally, the French Revolution also provided a model for nationalist movements and both sides in the Napoleonic Wars had sought to exploit nationalist sentiment when convenient to their war aims. For example, the French supported the nationalist rising in Ireland against the British in 1798 and revived hopes of

2565-524: The final Act of the Vienna Congress , which stipulated that the boundaries established in 1815 could not be altered without the consent of its eight signatories. The Concert of Europe was very much a response to the French Revolution. From the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 to the exile of Napoleon to Saint Helena in 1815, Europe had been almost constantly at war. All

2660-468: The status quo of Europe prior to 1789. The first phase of the Concert of Europe is typically described as beginning in 1814 with the Congress of Vienna, and ending in the early 1860s with the Prussian and Austrian invasion of Denmark. This first phase included numerous congresses, including the Congress of Paris in 1856 which some scholars argue represented the apex of the Concert of Europe in its ending of

2755-562: The unequal treaties signed between China and Western powers in the preceding decades. Two major international conferences at the Hague led to the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and illustrated the continuing desire for peace and stability within Europe. While these do reveal a continuation of the norm of grand Conferences to preserve the status quo, the Conventions were largely ignored in

2850-506: The 1814–1815 Congress of Vienna, which was designed to bring together the "major powers" of the time in order to stabilize the geopolitics of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon in 1813–1814, and contain France's power after the war following the French Revolution. The Congress of Vienna took place from November 1814 to June 1815 in Vienna, Austria, and brought together representatives from over 200 European polities. The Congress of Vienna created

2945-536: The Balkans undermined the Concert as the great powers were not able to preserve the status quo after the First Balkan War . While the London Conference of 1912–1913 called on the great powers to finalize the borders, the success of the minor Balkan states was presented to the great powers as a fait accompli and could not be undone. The crisis of July 1914 – the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo which lit

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3040-544: The Black Sea and the Balkans, and to protect the Eastern Orthodox Christians under Muslim Ottoman rule, supported Greek independence and was dissatisfied with other Powers' desire to treat the uprising as an internal matter and support for the status quo. Russia and the United Kingdom entered a bilateral agreement to enforce their plan, by war if necessary, for a mediated end to the conflict with Greek autonomy within

3135-455: The British foreign secretary at the time of its inception, the Holy Alliance was "a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense". Nevertheless, its influence was more long lasting than its contemporary critics expected and was revived in the 1820s as a tool of repression when Britain and France refused to embroil themselves in certain continental matters. The Quadruple Alliance, by contrast, was

3230-516: The Concert proved ultimately unable to handle the collapse of Ottoman power in the Balkans , hardening of the alliance system into two firm camps (the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente ), and the feeling among many civilian and military leaders on both sides that a war was inevitable or even desirable. The Concert of Europe describes the geopolitical order in Europe from 1814 to 1914, during which

3325-491: The Crimean War. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh , Austrian chancellor and foreign minister Klemens von Metternich , and Emperor Alexander I of Russia . Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord of France was largely responsible for quickly returning the country to its place alongside the other major powers in international diplomacy. The Kingdom of Prussia , and

3420-504: The Dutch force took control of Antwerp and moved deeper into Belgium. The Belgian army of the Meuse was defeated in the battle of Hasselt . On 8 August Leopold called for support from the French and the British. As a result Marshal Étienne Maurice Gérard crossed the border with 70,000 French troops under his command on 9 August. The battle of Leuven (where King Leopold had placed his headquarters) began on 12 August. In order to avoid war with

3515-678: The European States. These rival alliances threatened the underlying nature of the Concert, which relied on ad hoc alliances to respond to a given situation. Later conferences including the Algeciras Conference of 1906 defusing the First Moroccan Crisis , showed that the Conference System was still viable for resolving disputes, but further cemented the adversarial relationship between the two camps. Furthermore, events in

3610-475: The European powers were divided over the Belgian cry for independence. The Napoleonic Wars were still fresh in the memories of the major European powers, so once the French, under the recently installed July Monarchy , supported Belgian independence, the other European powers unsurprisingly supported the continued union of the provinces of the Netherlands. Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United Kingdom all supported

3705-539: The European powers were short of the funds, materiel, and manpower necessary for further fighting and therefore sought structures to avoid new conflicts. The military conquests of France had resulted in the spread of liberalism throughout much of the continent, including the adoption of the reforms such as the Napoleonic Code . Having seen how the French Revolution had begun with calls for fairly mild reforms but had quickly led to radical democratic reforms and attacks on

3800-634: The First World War, many proposals were vetoed or not adopted by all Great Powers, and non-European and minor Powers played an important role. The fall of the second phase of the Concert of Europe can be attributed largely to the rival alliance systems – the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) – which formed a rift in

3895-602: The King to accept a constitution. Other powers present at this Congress include Naples, Sicily, the United Kingdom, and France. The Congress of Laibach represented beginning tensions within the Concert of Europe, between the Eastern powers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, versus the Western powers of Britain and France. The 1822 Congress of Verona took place in Verona, Italy, between the powers of

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3990-418: The London conference and Belgian independence in 1839 by signing the Treaty of London . After the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Congress of Vienna created a kingdom for the House of Orange-Nassau , thus combining the United Provinces of the Netherlands with the former Austrian Netherlands to create a strong buffer state north of France; with the addition of those provinces

4085-406: The Netherlands became a rising power. Symptomatic of the tenor of diplomatic bargaining at Vienna was the early proposal to reward Prussia for its fight against Napoleon with the former Habsburg territory. When the United Kingdom insisted on retaining the former Dutch Ceylon and the Cape Colony , which it had seized while the Netherlands was ruled by Napoleon, the new Kingdom of the Netherlands

4180-471: The Netherlands) Recognized Belgium as an independent and neutral country comprising West Flanders , East Flanders , Brabant , Antwerp , Hainaut , Namur , and Liège , as well as half of Luxembourg and Limburg . The Dutch army, however, held onto Maastricht , and as a result, the Netherlands kept the eastern half of Limburg and its large coalfields. Germany broke the treaty in 1914 when it invaded Belgium on 4 August and dismissed British protests over

4275-399: The Netherlands, since they feared that the French would eventually annex an independent Belgium (particularly the British: see Flahaut partition plan for Belgium ). However, in the end, none of the European powers sent troops to aid the Dutch government, partly because of rebellions within some of their own borders (the Russians were occupied with the November Uprising in Poland and Prussia

4370-421: The Ottoman Empire. The other great powers were not consulted in this Protocol and though France later joined, Austria and Prussia opposed the Protocol and the threat it posed to the conservative, anti-nationalist stability they sought to impose on Europe. The Ottomans also rejected the Protocol until their defeat at the Battle of Navarino at the hands of the British, French, Russian, and Greek forces forced them to

4465-423: The Powers of the Alliance would also be bound to peacefully or by means of war bring the excluded State back into the Alliance. The 1821 Congress of Laibach took place in Laibach (now Ljubljana , Slovenia ), between the powers of the Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) in order to discuss the Austrian invasion and occupation of Naples in order to put down the Neapolitan Revolution of 1820 which had forced

4560-438: The Prime Minister Adolphe Thiers resigned and France's new government fell into step with the other great powers. The Oriental Crisis showed that important political questions would still be decided by the great powers; but it also illustrated the destabilizing effect the continued weakening of the Ottoman Empire (the so-called Eastern Question ) had on the balance of power. The sabre-rattling triggered several powers to embark on

4655-406: The Quintuple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, and the United Kingdom), along with Spain, Sicily, and Naples. This Congress dealt with the question of Spanish revolution of 1820; Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to support France's planned intervention in Spain , while the United Kingdom opposed it. This Congress also looked to deal with the Greek Revolution against Turkey, but due to

4750-503: The age of nationalism ultimately brought the first phase of the Concert to an end, as it was unable to prevent the wars leading to the Italian unification (by the Kingdom of Sardinia ) in 1861 and German unification (by Prussia) in 1871 which remade the maps of Europe. Following German unification, German chancellor Otto von Bismarck sought to revive the Concert of Europe to protect Germany's gains and secure its leading role in European affairs. The revitalized Concert included Austria (at

4845-436: The approaching French the Dutch agreed an armistice with Belgium and withdrew after briefly taking control of the city. While the victorious initial campaign gave the Dutch an advantageous position in subsequent negotiations, the Dutch were compelled to agree to an indefinite armistice, although they continued to hold the Antwerp Citadel and occasionally bombarded the city from it. Gerard returned to Belgium in November 1832 with

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4940-434: The breach was lost on 26 September when a National Congress was summoned to draw up a Constitution and the Provisional Government was established under Charles Latour Rogier . The Provisional Government then issued a Declaration of Independence on 4 October 1830. On 20 December 1830 the London Conference of 1830 brought together five major European powers: Austria, the United Kingdom, France, Prussia and Russia. At first,

5035-412: The conflict resolved in a single Congress and resulting in a single treaty. The next war between great powers came just three years later in 1859, with what became known as the Second Italian War of Independence . The war was fought between France and Piedmont-Sardinia on the one hand and Austria on the other and resulted in a swift defeat for the Austrians. Lasting only two months and resulting mainly in

5130-423: The creation of an independent, neutral Belgium as a buffer state, to which the other Great Powers ultimately agreed. The Ottoman Empire faced an internal revolt in the 1830s led by the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha , who sought to create an empire and remove Egypt and Sudan of Ottoman suzerainty. Muhammad Ali's demand for control of parts of the Levant and subsequent invasion of Syria threatened to topple

5225-430: The desperate and exasperated proletariat of Brussels, who rallied around the newly created flag of the Brussels independence movement which was fastened to a standard with shoelaces during a street fight and used to lead a counter-charge against the forces of Prince William. William I sent his two sons, Crown- Prince William and Prince Frederik to quell the riots. William was asked by the Burghers of Brussels to come to

5320-411: The established order by force, but the 8,000 Dutch troops under Prince Frederik were unable to retake Brussels in bloody street fighting (23–26 September). The army was withdrawn to the fortresses of Maastricht , Venlo , and Antwerp , and when the Northern commander of Antwerp bombarded the town, claiming a breach of a ceasefire, the whole of the Southern provinces was incensed. Any opportunity to quell

5415-460: The fall of the first phase, the rise of nationalism was in almost direct opposition to the core cooperative functions of the Concert, and resulted in States who were no longer well constrained by the Congress system. The outbreak of conflict – namely in the Balkans after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand – highlighted the final failure of the Concert of Europe, in that it was no longer able to constrain State national interests in order to maintain

5510-435: The fuse on Balkan tensions – catalyzed the collapse of the Concert of Europe for good, and marked the start of the first World War. Nationalism played a role in the fall of both the first and second phases of the Concert of Europe, and was generally on the rise around the world before the start of the first World War; nationalism is seen by some scholars as a driving factor in the start of the first World War. Particularly with

5605-404: The great powers tended to act in concert to avoid wars and revolutions and generally maintain the territorial and political status quo. Particularly in the early years of the Concert, the Concert was maintained through the Congress System – sometimes called the Vienna System – which was a series of Congresses among the great powers to resolve disputes or respond to new issues. The Concert of Europe

5700-410: The great powers to find a diplomatic solution. The war also illustrated a key piece of the balance of power theory, when the combined efforts of several great powers were marshaled to check the ambitions of a single rival to prevent it becoming too powerful. The war ended in 1856 with the Congress of Paris , which is sometimes viewed as the pinnacle of the Concert with all outstanding issues surrounding

5795-433: The high point of the second phase, as all great powers and several minor powers agreed on the rules for colonial expansion which defined areas of colonial and imperial control and successfully preempted many disputes concerning colonial expansion in Africa. All the European Great Powers also participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) in China (alongside the United States and Japan), to affirm and defend

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5890-405: The influence of secularism and liberalism in Europe. The brainchild of Tsar Alexander I, it gained at least nominal support from many states, partly because most European monarchs did not wish to offend the Tsar by refusing to sign it, and as it bound monarchs personally rather than their governments, it was sufficiently vague to be functionally ignored once signed. In the opinion of Lord Castlereagh,

5985-433: The issue of Prussia's and Austria's invasion of Denmark in the Second Schleswig War . As the growth of nationalism led to dissatisfaction with the rule of the Danish crown over ethnically German Holstein and ethnically mixed Schleswig , the German populations of the provinces revolted in 1848 but the threat of intervention by the other major powers prevented the German great powers (Prussia and Austria) from intervening and

6080-417: The maintenance of peace in Europe". However, the wording Article VI of the treaty did not specify what these "fixed periods" were to be and there were no provisions in the treaty for a permanent commission to arrange and organise the conferences. This meant that instead of meeting at "fixed periods" the meetings were arranged on an ad hoc basis, to address specific threats or disputes. The "Congress System"

6175-429: The more liberal July Monarchy as a result of its own 1830 revolution , supported Belgium's independence, as much of the impetus came from the lack of power of the Francophone and Catholic residents. The United Kingdom was very wary of French plans to annex parts of Belgium, but when no powers were willing to send troops to support the Dutch, and with the ascension of a more liberal Whig government , eventually supported

6270-418: The most significant armament and fortification projects since Napoleon, particularly in France and the German Confederation. The Concert was challenged by the Revolutions of 1848 but was ultimately successful in preventing major changes to the map of Europe. However, the revolts, which combined nationalist and liberal ideas, posed a real threat to the conservative order that had reigned since 1815, as shown by

6365-426: The negotiating table. The London Conference of 1830 dealt with the question of the Belgian–Dutch conflict, which was caused by the 1830 Belgian Revolution where Belgium separated from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Austria, Prussia, and Russia saw Belgium's separation as a threat to stability, inviting further revolutions and revolts, and sought to return to the status quo ante. On the other hand, France, now led by

6460-465: The newspapers. On 25 August 1830, at the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie in Brussels, an uprising followed a special performance, in honor of William I's birthday, of Daniel Auber 's La Muette de Portici (The Mute Girl of Portici) , a sentimental and patriotic opera set against Masaniello 's uprising against the Spanish masters of Naples in the 17th century. After the duet, "Amour sacré de la patrie", (Sacred love of Fatherland) with Adolphe Nourrit in

6555-440: The north. Many outspoken liberals regarded King William I's rule as despotic. There were high levels of unemployment and industrial unrest among the working classes. On 25 August 1830, riots erupted in Brussels and shops were looted. Theatergoers who had just watched the nationalistic opera La muette de Portici joined the mob. Uprisings followed elsewhere in the country. Factories were occupied and machinery destroyed. Order

6650-428: The opposition of the United Kingdom and Austria to Russian intervention in the Balkans, the Congress of Verona did not end up addressing this issue. The Protocol of St. Petersburg is often cited as the end of the Congress System, as it represented the failure of the Congress of St. Petersburg (1825) to resolve the question of the Greek War of Independence against the Ottomans. Russia, seeking territory and influence in

6745-444: The other four powers agreed in the Convention of London (1840) to act without France. A joint British-Austrian force attacked Egyptian forces and forced Muhammad Ali to accept the Ottoman terms. France threatened war on behalf of Egypt and tried to seek territorial compensation in Europe by reclaiming the Left Bank of the Rhine leading to the Rhine Crisis . However, within a few months, the bellicose French government lost support and

6840-511: The outbreak of World War I and others for points in between. For those arguing for a longer duration, there is generally agreement that the period after the Revolutions of 1848 and the Crimean War (1853–1856) represented a different phase with different dynamics than the earlier period. The beginnings of the Concert of Europe, known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after

6935-504: The outbreak of war. This phase later became known (especially in France) as the Belle Époque , the beautiful epoch, as the two world wars and their consequences made the period preceding the First World War seem like a golden age by comparison. The second phase saw a revival of great power "conferences" where all the great powers met on an ad hoc basis to resolve crises or disputes by consensus. At

7030-510: The press and in 1834 Minister of Justice Lebeau banned expressions of Orangism in the public sphere, enforced with heavy penalties. The golden jubilee of independence set up the Cinquantenaire park complex in Brussels. In 2005, the Belgian revolution of 1830 was depicted in one of the highest value Belgian coins ever minted, the 100 euro "175 Years of Belgium" coin . The obverse depicts

7125-535: The reactionary efforts of the Congress of Vienna to restore Europe to its state before the French Revolution . The ultimate failure of the Concert of Europe, culminating in the First World War, was driven by various factors including rival alliances and the rise of nationalism. The Congress-focused approach to international affairs continued to be influential in the later League of Nations , the United Nations ,

7220-413: The rival Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom), rather than the flexible balance of power system with each Power viewing all others as rivals. In addition, the growth of colonial and imperial power around the world and the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans and North Africa meant the Concert's goal of territorial and political stability was harder to achieve, eventually leading to

7315-573: The shooting stands. For World War II , during the German occupation, following the Battle of France , 10,000 members of the Hitler Youth forming the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend were trained at the camp. During the war, it was also used as a transit camp for the Holocaust . Josef Nassy , an American black artist of Jewish descent, was imprisoned here during World War II. This article about

7410-517: The start of the Kingdom of Belgium. It is celebrated each year as Belgian National Day . King William was not satisfied with the settlement drawn up in London and did not accept Belgium's claim of independence: it divided his kingdom and drastically affected his Treasury. On 2 August 1831 the Dutch army, headed by the Dutch princes, invaded Belgium, in what became known as the " Ten Days' Campaign " On 4 August

7505-611: The success of the French uprising ending the July Monarchy and ushering in the Second Republic . However, in response, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and even republican France worked – and in some cases coordinate closely – to defeat the uprisings in Germany, Italy, and Eastern Europe. Britain also sought to preserve the status quo, providing no support to the revolutionaries, and mainly seeking to ensure that no other powers managed to leverage

7600-588: The tenor role, many audience members left the theater and joined the riots which had already begun. The crowd poured into the streets shouting patriotic slogans. The brawls and violence continued for several days, with protesters capturing key points in the city including the Parc de Bruxelles and the Palais de Bruxelles . The Belgian rebels began to organize and fortify their positions in preparation for further confrontations with Dutch forces. The following days saw an explosion of

7695-489: The time a part of Austria-Hungary ), France, Italy, Russia, and Britain, with Germany as the driving continental power. The second phase oversaw a further period of relative peace and stability from the 1870s to 1914, and facilitated the growth of European colonial and imperial control in Africa and Asia without wars between the great powers. The Concert of Europe certainly ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when

7790-489: The town alone, with no troops, for a meeting; this he did, despite the risks. The affable and moderate Crown Prince William, who represented the monarchy in Brussels, was convinced by the Estates-General on 1 September that the administrative separation of north and south was the only viable solution to the crisis. His father rejected the terms of accommodation that Prince William proposed. King William I attempted to restore

7885-404: The transfer of lands to a minor Italian power (Piedmont Sardinia), the war also did not result in a general European war but the transfer of European territory from a great power was unprecedented during the Concert period and presaged the coming decade of wars of national unity which would reshape Europe. The decline of the Concert was further highlighted by the failure of a ceasefire in 1864 over

7980-619: The uprisings into expanded influence in areas of British interest, such as the Mediterranean and the Low Countries. Sometimes viewed as the end of the first phase, the next blow to the Concert was the Crimean War , the first war between Great Powers since Napoleon. However, the war was marked by being geographically limited to the Crimea and Danubian Principalities rather than a general European war, numerous peace overtures, and serial efforts by

8075-520: The weak Ottoman regime and brought the issue to a head in what became known as the Oriental Crisis of 1840 . The Ottomans were supported by Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia who sought stability and continuity. France, however, supported Muhammad Ali, a longtime ally in North Africa, hoping to further increase French influence in the Mediterranean through a French-aligned independent Egypt. However,

8170-471: The year of the Treaty of London . The second phase saw a further period of peace between the Great Powers and a revival of the conference system for the resolution of disputes. This period was dominated by issues related to colonialism, particularly the Scramble for Africa . However, a number of factors led to the hardening of alliances into two camps, the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and

8265-459: Was an effort to maintain peace and stability in Europe through regular Congresses of the great powers, similar to the Congress of Vienna , to address pressing issues and resolve disputes through negotiation and coordinated action. The system of regular formal Congresses was short-lived, primarily due to the refusal of Great Britain to take part due to ideological and strategic differences with the Holy Alliance powers. The Concert of Europe began with

8360-513: Was compensated with these southern provinces (modern Belgium). The revolution was due to a combination of factors, the main one being the difference of religion ( Catholic in today's Belgium , Protestant in today's Netherlands ) and the general lack of autonomy given to the south. Other important factors are Catholic partisans watched with excitement the unfolding of the July Revolution in France, details of which were swiftly reported in

8455-528: Was given by Article V of the Quadruple Alliance, and resulted in ending the occupation of France. The 1820 Congress of Troppau was held in Troppau, Austria by the great powers of the Quintuple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, and the United Kingdom) to discuss and put down the liberal uprising in Naples that caused King Ferdinand I to agree to a constitutional monarchy – which was seen by Prussia and Austria as

8550-444: Was more influential in the development of international relations in Europe in the two decades following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In the opinion of historian Tim Chapman, the differences are somewhat academic as the powers were not bound by the terms of the treaties and many of them intentionally broke the terms if it suited them. The Holy Alliance was an informal alliance led by Russia, Austria, and Prussia which aimed to reduce

8645-404: Was proposed again. On 22 April 1831, Leopold was approached by a Belgian delegation at Marlborough House to officially offer him the throne. At first reluctant to accept, he eventually took up the offer, and after an enthusiastic popular welcome on his way to Brussels , Leopold I of Belgium took his oath as king on 21 July 1831. 21 July is generally used to mark the end of the revolution and

8740-541: Was restored briefly after William committed troops to the Southern Provinces but rioting continued and leadership was taken up by radicals, who started talking of secession. Dutch units saw the mass desertion of recruits from the southern provinces and pulled out. On September 27, a newly formed Provisional Government in Brussels declared independence and called for the election of a National Congress . . King William refrained from future military action and appealed to

8835-478: Was saddled with war debt). Britain would come to see the benefits of isolating France geographically with the new creation of a new Belgian buffer state between France, the Netherlands and Prussia. In November 1830, the National Congress of Belgium was established to create a constitution for the new state. The Congress decided that Belgium would be a popular , constitutional monarchy . On 7 February 1831,

8930-589: Was set up by mutinous German soldiers in November 1918 as part of the November Revolution . The first mutiny, by Alsatian soldiers occurred on 12 May 1918. They worked closely with the Brussels Soldiers' Council . In 1920, the facilities hosted the pistol and rifle shooting events for the 1920 Summer Olympics . While those events took place, combat engineers detonated grenades four kilometres from

9025-404: Was the conflict which led to the secession of the southern provinces (mainly the former Southern Netherlands ) from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Belgium . The people of the south were mainly Flemings and Walloons . Both peoples were traditionally Roman Catholic as contrasted with Protestant-dominated ( Dutch Reformed ) people of

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