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126-462: The Bethlehem Steel Corporation was an American steelmaking company headquartered in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania . Until its closure in 2003, it was one of the world's largest steel-producing and shipbuilding companies. At the height of its success and productivity, the company was a symbol of American manufacturing leadership in the world, and its decline and ultimate liquidation in the late 20th century

252-413: A heavy industry . Today there are two major commercial processes for making steel, namely basic oxygen steelmaking , which has liquid pig-iron from the blast furnace and scrap steel as the main feed materials, and electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking, which uses scrap steel or direct reduced iron (DRI) as the main feed materials. Oxygen steelmaking is fueled predominantly by the exothermic nature of

378-408: A ladle . In this step, the oxygen binds with the undesired carbon, carrying it away in the form of carbon dioxide gas, an additional source of emissions. After this step, the carbon content in the pig iron is lowered sufficiently and steel is obtained. Further carbon dioxide emissions result from the use of limestone , which is melted at high temperatures in a reaction called calcination , which has

504-410: A " carbon offset ", where emissions are "traded" against the sequestration of the source biomass, "ofsetting" emissions by 5% to 28% of current CO 2 values. Offsetting has a very low reputation globally, as cutting down the trees to create the pellets or charcoal does not sequester carbon, it interrupts the natural sequestration the tree was providing. Offsetting is not reduction. Overall, there are

630-479: A batch ("heat") of iron is loaded into the furnace, sometimes with a "hot heel" (molten steel from a previous heat). Gas burners may be used to assist with the melt. As in basic oxygen steelmaking, fluxes are also added to protect the lining of the vessel and help improve the removal of impurities. Electric arc furnace steelmaking typically uses furnaces of capacity around 100 tonnes that produce steel every 40 to 50 minutes. This process allows larger alloy additions than

756-653: A brief time. The United States Shipbuilding Company was in turmoil; its subsidiaries, including the Bethlehem Steel Company, contributed to the United States Shipbuilding Company's problems. Schwab again became involved with Bethlehem Steel Company through the parent company, the United States Shipbuilding Company. The United States Shipbuilding Company planned in 1903 to reorganize as the Bethlehem Steel and Shipbuilding Company, which would be

882-403: A fixed thickness of armour plate, a projectile striking at an angle must penetrate more armour than one impacting perpendicularly . An angled surface also increases the chance of deflecting a projectile. This can be seen on v-hull designs, which direct the force of an Improvised explosive device or landmine away from the crew compartment, increasing crew survivability . Beginning during

1008-551: A hammer, an axe, etc. The plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance. The glass, which is much harder than plastic, flattens the bullet and thereby prevents penetration. This type of bullet-resistant glass is usually 70–75 mm (2.8–3.0 in) thick. Bullet-resistant glass constructed of laminated glass layers is built from glass sheets bonded together with polyvinyl butyral , polyurethane or ethylene-vinyl acetate . This type of bullet-resistant glass has been in regular use on combat vehicles since World War II ; it

1134-620: A lawsuit was filed in the Third Circuit Court of Appeals in Philadelphia . The case, Lawrence Hollyfield, Fiduciary to the Estate of Collins Hollyfield v. Pension Plan of Bethlehem Steel Corporation and Subsidiary Companies, was settled in favor of Hollyfield in 2001. It led to a class action lawsuit filed by Bethlehem Steel's workers union soon thereafter. This settlement led to PBGC assuming all Bethlehem Steel pension obligations, representing

1260-490: A layer two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel . Plastic armour was highly effective at stopping armour piercing bullets because the hard granite particles would deflect the bullet, which would then lodge between plastic armour and the steel backing plate. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the steel backing plate and a temporary wooden form. Some main battle tank (MBT) armour utilises polymers, for example polyurethane as used in

1386-423: A loss of US$ 1.5 billion and shut down much of its operations. The company's profitability returned briefly in 1988, but restructuring and shutdowns continued through the 1990s. In the mid-1980s, demand for the plant's structural products began to diminish and new competition entered the marketplace. Lighter construction styles, due in part to lower-height construction styles, such as low-rise buildings, did not require

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1512-482: A naval appropriations bill that authorized the construction of two armored second-class battleships, one protected cruiser, one first-class torpedo boat, and the complete rebuilding and modernization of two Civil War-era monitors. The two second-class battleships, the USS ; Texas and the USS  Maine , both had large-caliber guns with 12-inch and 10-inch, respectively, and heavy armor plating. Bethlehem secured both

1638-531: A number of innovative methods to reduce CO 2 emissions within the steelmaking industry. Some of these, such as top gas recovery and using hydrogen reduction in DRI/EAF are highly feasible with current infrastructure and technology levels. Others, such as hydrogen plasma and iron ore electrolysis are still in the research or semi-industrial stage. Vehicle armour Military vehicles are commonly armoured (or armored; see spelling differences ) to withstand

1764-652: A pilot plant in Woburn, Massachusetts , and building a production facility in Brazil, it was founded by MIT professors Donald Sadoway and Antoine Allanore. A research project which involved the steel company ArcelorMittal tested a different type of iron ore electrolysis process in a pilot project called Siderwin. It operates on relatively low temperatures (around 110 °C), while the Boston Metal process operates on high temperatures (~1.600 °C). As of March 2023 ArcelorMittal

1890-851: A presence in Latin America for roughly a century (1880s - 1980s). As such, the company profited greatly from the United States’ economic control over the region. “In a single year, 1960, U.S. Steel and Bethlehem Steel realized a greater than 30 percent profit on their Venezuelan iron investment, and this profit equaled all the taxes paid to the Venezuelan state in the decade since 1950” Bethlehem Steel also relied on Latin American mines for manganese , an additive for tensile strength. During President Eurico Dutra’s presidency in Brazil (1946 - 1951), Bethlehem Steel received 40 million ton of manganese “for 4 percent of

2016-406: A result, the company encountered difficulty when it faced rising pension costs combined with diminishing profits and increased global competition. By the 1970s, imported foreign steel was proving cheaper than domestically produced steel, and Bethlehem Steel faced growing competition from mini-mills and smaller-scale operations that could sell steel at lower prices. In 1982, Bethlehem Steel reported

2142-450: A shaped-charge warhead hits, the explosive detonates and pushes the steel plates into the warhead, disrupting the flow of the charge's liquid metal penetrator (usually copper at around 500 degrees Celsius; it can be made to flow like water by sufficient pressure). Traditional "light" ERA is less effective against kinetic penetrators. "Heavy" reactive armour, however, offers better protection. The only example currently in widespread service

2268-546: A single one of which was for 50,000 tons of steel, went to competitors in Seattle, St. Louis, New York and Illinois. U.S. global leadership in steel manufacturing lasted about two decades during which the U.S. steel industry operated with little foreign competition. Eventually however, foreign firms were rebuilt with modern techniques such as continuous casting , while profitable U.S. companies resisted modernization. Bethlehem experimented with continuous casting but never fully adopted

2394-669: A sort of armour in the form of an aramid composite kevlar bandage around the fan casing or debris containment walls built into the casing of their gas turbine engines to prevent injuries or airframe damage should the fan, compressor, or turbine blades break free. The design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials ( nanomaterials ) and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper , and aluminium foam armour plates. Rolled homogeneous armour

2520-548: A subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, though the Bethlehem Steel Company also had subsidiaries of its own. Bethlehem Steel Corporation became the second largest steel provider in the United States. Both the Bethlehem Steel Company and the Bethlehem Steel Corporation existed simultaneously after 1904 until the 1960s, when the two companies were merged into the Bethlehem Steel Corporation. From 1906 until it

2646-481: A team of assistants, applied a series of management principles established by Taylor, which would later come to be known as scientific management and was used in increasing mass production. The Bethlehem Iron Company was very successful and profitable, and the corporate management of the Bethlehem Iron Company believed that it could be even more profitable. To accomplish that goal, the corporate ownership of

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2772-548: A type of Reactive armour . These elements are often a laminate consisting of two hard plates (usually high hardness steel) with some low density interlayer material between them. Upon impact, the interlayer swells and moves the plates, disrupting heat 'jets' and possibly degrading kinetic energy projectiles. Behind these elements will be some backing element designed to stop the degraded jet or projectile element, which may be of high hardness steel, or some composite of steel and ceramic or possibly uranium. Soviet main battle tanks from

2898-474: A versatile material. For much of human history, steel has only been made in small quantities. Since the invention of the Bessemer process in 19th century Britain and subsequent technological developments in injection technology and process control , mass production of steel has become an integral part of the global economy and a key indicator of modern technological development. The earliest means of producing steel

3024-477: A way that each tank component functions as added back-up armour to protect the crew. Outer armour is modular and enables quickly replacing damaged parts. For efficiency, the heaviest armour on an armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) is placed on its front. Tank tactics require the vehicle to always face the likely direction of enemy fire as much as possible, even in defence or withdrawal operations. Sloping and curving armour can both increase its protection. Given

3150-404: A whole, spaced armour can provide significantly increased protection while saving weight. The analogous Whipple shield uses the principle of spaced armour to protect spacecraft from the impacts of very fast micrometeoroids . The impact with the first wall melts or breaks up the incoming particle, causing fragments to be spread over a wider area when striking the subsequent walls. Sloped armour

3276-421: Is Russian Kontakt-5 . Explosive reactive armour poses a threat to friendly troops near the vehicle. Non-explosive reactive armour is an advanced spaced armour which uses materials which change their geometry so as to increase protection under the stress of impact. Active protection systems use a sensor to detect an incoming projectile and explosively launch a counter-projectile into its path. Slat armour

3402-785: Is a concern, such as personal armour and military aviation . Some notable examples of its use include the USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet/Russian-built Sukhoi Su-25 ground-attack aircraft, utilising a bathtub-shaped titanium enclosure for the pilot, as well as the Soviet/Russian Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter. Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of

3528-420: Is a layer of armour-plating outside the hull (watercraft) of warships, typically on battleships , battlecruisers , cruisers and some aircraft carriers . Typically, the belt covers from the deck down someway below the waterline of the ship. If built within the hull, rather than forming the outer hull, it can be fitted at an inclined angle to improve the protection. When struck by a shell or torpedo ,

3654-416: Is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, which offers varying degrees of protection from small arms fire. The polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear , Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with

3780-427: Is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich pig iron is melted and converted into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron converts some of the carbon in the iron into CO and CO 2 , turning it into steel. Refractories — calcium oxide and magnesium oxide —line the smelting vessel to withstand the high temperature and corrosive nature of the molten metal and slag . The chemistry of

3906-451: Is also rich in the reducing agents of H 2 and CO. The top gas can be captured, the CO 2 removed, and the reducing agents reinjected into the blast furnace. A 2012 study suggested that this process can reduce BF CO 2 emissions by 75%, while a 2017 study showed that emissions are reduced by 56.5% with carbon capture and storage, and reduced by 26.2% if only the recycling of the reducing agents

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4032-451: Is and ongoing project by SuSteel to develop a hydrogen plasma technology that reduces the oxides with hydrogen, as opposed to with CO or carbon, and melts the iron at high operating temperatures. In steelmaking, coal and coke are used for fuel and iron reduction. Biomass such as charcoal or wood pellets are a potential alternative fuel, but this does not actually reduce emissions, as the burning biomass still emits carbon, it merely provides

4158-456: Is armour that is mounted at a non-vertical and non-horizontal angle, typically on tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles. For a given normal to the surface of the armour, its plate thickness, increasing armour slope improves the armour's level of protection by increasing the thickness measured on a horizontal plane, while for a given area density of the armour the protection can be either increased or reduced by other sloping effects, depending on

4284-487: Is common. Civilian armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo. Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from threats other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space debris . Modern aircraft powered by jet engines usually have them fitted with

4410-404: Is designed to protect against anti-tank rocket and missile attacks, where the warhead is a shaped charge . The slats are spaced so that the warhead is either partially deformed before detonating, or the fuzing mechanism is damaged, thereby preventing detonation entirely. As shaped charges rely on very specific structure to create a jet of hot metal, any disruption to this structure greatly reduces

4536-401: Is infused with carbon (from coal) in an electric arc furnace . Hydrogen produced by electrolysis requires approximately 2600 kWh per ton of steel. Costs are estimated to be 20–30% higher than conventional methods. However, the cost of CO 2 -emissions add to the price of basic oxygen production, and a 2018 study of Science magazine estimates that the prices will break even when that price

4662-472: Is investigating whether the company wants scale up the technology and build a larger plant, and expects an investment decision by 2025. Scrap in steelmaking refers to steel that has either reached its end-of-life use, or was generated during the manufacture of steel components. Steel is easy to separate and recycle due to its inherent magnetism and using scrap avoids the emissions of 1.5 tons of CO 2 for every ton of scrap used. As of 2023 , steel has one of

4788-446: Is iron ore electrolysis, where the reducing agent is simply electrons as opposed to H 2 , CO, or carbon. One method for this is molten oxide electrolysis. Here, the cell consists of an inert anode, a liquid oxide electrolyte (CaO, MgO, etc.), and the molten steel. When heated, the iron ore is reduced to iron and oxygen. Boston Metal is at the semi-industrial stage for this process, with plans to reach commercialization by 2026. Expanding

4914-440: Is not very strong, but a low concentration of carbon – less than 1 percent, depending on the kind of steel – gives the steel its important properties. The carbon in steel is obtained from coal and the iron from iron ore. However, iron ore is a mixture of iron and oxygen, and other trace elements. To make steel, the iron needs to be separated from the oxygen and a tiny amount of carbon needs to be added. Both are accomplished by melting

5040-614: Is produced loses its coherence before reaching the main armour and impacting over a broader area. Sometimes the interior surfaces of these hollow cavities are sloped, presenting angles to the anticipated path of the shaped charge's jet in order to further dissipate its power. Taken to the extreme, relatively thin armour plates, metal mesh, or slatted plates , much lighter than fully protective armour, can be attached as side skirts or turret skirts to provide additional protection against such weapons. This can be seen in middle and late-World War II German tanks , as well as many modern AFVs . Taken as

5166-827: Is similarly cited as an example of America's diminished manufacturing leadership. From its founding in 1857 through its 2003 dissolution, Bethlehem Steel's headquarters were based in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in the Lehigh Valley region of the United States. Its primary steel mill manufacturing facilities were first located in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania and later expanded to include a major research laboratory in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and plants in Sparrows Point, Maryland, Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Lackawanna, New York, and its final and largest site in Burns Harbor, Indiana. The company's steel

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5292-403: Is strong, hard, and tough (does not shatter when struck with a fast, hard blow). Steel with these characteristics are produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size and then rolling them into plates of required thickness. Rolling and forging (hammering the steel when it is red hot) irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of

5418-570: Is the fact that sloping armour is a more efficient way of covering the necessary equipment since it encloses less volume with less material. The sharpest angles are usually seen on the frontal glacis plate, both as it is the hull side most likely to be hit and because there is more room to slope in the longitudinal direction of a vehicle. Explosive reactive armour , initially developed by German researcher Manfred Held while working in Israel, uses layers of high explosive sandwiched between steel plates. When

5544-573: Is the most prominent among green steel technologies. This differs from conventional steel making processes, in which carbon in coke is used as the reductant (to strip oxygen from iron ore), which creates iron and carbon dioxide. Where hydrogen is generated from a renewable energy source as both the alternative reductant and the fuel, the greatest gain in CO 2 emissions is achieved. As of 2021, only ArcelorMittal in France, Voestalpine in Austria, and TATA in

5670-455: Is typically about 100–120 mm (3.9–4.7 in) thick and is usually extremely heavy. Newer materials are being developed. One such, aluminium oxynitride , is much lighter but at US$ 10–15 per square inch is much more costly. Ceramic 's precise mechanism for defeating HEAT was uncovered in the 1980s. High speed photography showed that the ceramic material shatters as the HEAT round penetrates,

5796-413: Is used. To keep the carbon captured from entering the atmosphere, a method of storing it or using it would have to be found. Another way to use the top gas would be in a top recovery turbine which then generates electricity, which could be used to reduce the energy intensity of the process, if electric arc smelting is used. Carbon could also be captured from gases in the coke oven. As of 2022 , separating

5922-451: Is €68 per tonne CO 2 , which is expected to be reached in the 2030s. Secondary steelmaking is most commonly performed in ladles . Some of the operations performed in ladles include de-oxidation (or "killing"), vacuum degassing, alloy addition, inclusion removal, inclusion chemistry modification, de-sulphurisation, and homogenisation. It is now common to perform ladle metallurgical operations in gas-stirred ladles with electric arc heating in

6048-562: The American Civil War , the U.S. Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities as national energies were redirected toward settling the West and rebuilding the war-ravaged South. Almost no new ordnance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U.S. fleet and the need to rebuild it to protect U.S. military capabilities, trade, and prestige. In 1883, U.S. Secretary of

6174-565: The Axis powers in World War II. Historians cite Bethlehem Steel's ability to quickly manufacture warships and other military equipment as decisive factors in American victories in both world wars. Bethlehem Steel's roots trace to an iron-making company organized in 1857 in Bethlehem, which was later named the Bethlehem Iron Company. In 1899, the owners of the iron company founded Bethlehem Steel Company and, five years later, Bethlehem Steel Corporation

6300-480: The Cold War , many AFVs have spall liners inside of the armour, designed to protect crew and equipment inside from fragmentation (spalling) released from the impact of enemy shells, especially high-explosive squash head warheads. Spall liners are made of aramids ( Kevlar , Twaron ), UHMWPE ( Dyneema , Spectra Shield ), or similar materials. Appliqué armour, or add-on armour, consists of extra plates mounted onto

6426-885: The George Washington Bridge and Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge in New York City, the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco , and the Peace Bridge between Buffalo and Fort Erie, Ontario . Bethlehem Steel played an instrumental role in manufacturing the U.S. warships and other military weapons used in World War I and later by the Allied forces in ultimately winning World War II . Over 1,100 Bethlehem Steel-manufactured warships were built for use in defeating Nazi Germany and

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6552-580: The Lackawanna Steel Company , which included the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and extensive coal holdings. During World War I and World War II , Bethlehem Steel was a major supplier of armor plate and ordinance to the U.S. armed forces, including armor plate and large-caliber guns for the U.S. Navy, and was influential to U.S. victories in both wars. Bethlehem Steel "was the most important to America's national defense of any company in

6678-760: The T-64 onward utilised composite armour which often consisted of some low density filler between relatively thick steel plates or castings, for example Combination K . For example, the T-64 turret had a layer of ceramic balls and aluminum sandwiched between layers of cast steel armour, whilst some models of the T-72 features a glass filler called "Kvartz". The tank glacis was often a sandwich of steel and some low density filler, either textolite (a fibreglass reinforced polymer) or ceramic plates. Later T-80 and T-72 turrets contained NERA elements, similar to those discussed above. Belt armour

6804-447: The industrial process in which coal is used as the source of carbon that removes oxygen from iron ore in the following chemical reaction, which occurs in a blast furnace : Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO 2 (g) Additional carbon dioxide emissions result from mining, refining and shipping the ore used, basic oxygen steelmaking , calcination , and the hot blast . Proposed techniques to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in

6930-477: The "BDD" appliqué armour applied to modernized T-62 and T-55 . Bulletproof glass is a colloquial term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets . The industry generally refers to it as bullet-resistant glass or transparent armour . Bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass . The desired result

7056-570: The "bathtub" for its shape. In addition, the windscreens of larger aircraft are generally made of impact-resistant, laminated materials , even on civilian craft, to prevent damage from bird strikes or other debris. The most heavily armoured vehicles today are the main battle tanks , which are the spearhead of the ground forces, and are designed to withstand anti-tank guided missiles , kinetic energy penetrators , high-explosive anti-tank weapons, NBC threats and in some tanks even steep-trajectory shells. The Israeli Merkava tanks were designed in

7182-682: The Americans. Moreover, there was the Killdozer incident , with the modified bulldozer being armoured with steel and concrete composite, which proved to be highly resistant to small arms. Armour with two or more plates spaced a distance apart, called spaced armour, has been in use since the First World War , where it was used on the Schneider CA1 and Saint-Chamond tanks. Spaced armour can be advantageous in several situations. For example, it can reduce

7308-417: The Bethlehem Iron Company switched to steel production, and the company's name was formally changed to Bethlehem Steel Company. In 1899, Bethlehem Steel Company was established. This was the first company to carry the name Bethlehem Steel. Bethlehem Steel Company, also then known as Bethlehem Steel Works, was incorporated to take over all liabilities of the Bethlehem Iron Company. The Bethlehem Iron Company and

7434-555: The Bethlehem Steel Company gained control of all properties from the Bethlehem Iron Company and the Bethlehem Iron Company ceased operations. Schwab transferred his ownership of the Bethlehem Steel Company to the U.S. Steel Corporation , the company of which he was president. This period was brief; Schwab repurchased Bethlehem Steel Company, then sold it to the United States Shipbuilding Company . The United States Shipbuilding Company owned Bethlehem Steel Company only

7560-431: The Bethlehem Steel Company were separate companies under the same ownership. The Bethlehem Steel Company leased the properties that were owned by the Bethlehem Iron Company. In 1901, Charles M. Schwab (no relation to the stockbroker Charles R. Schwab ), purchased the Bethlehem Steel Company and made Samuel Broadbent its vice president. During this time, the company's lease with the Bethlehem Iron Company came to an end as

7686-555: The CO2 from other gases and components in the system, and the high cost of the equipment and infrastructure changes needed, have kept this strategy minimal, but the potential for emission reduction has been estimated to be up to 65% to 80%. Alternatively, hydrogen can be used in a shaft furnace to reduce the iron oxides. Only water is produced as the by-product of the reaction between iron oxide and hydrogen, and results in emission-free iron-making. Known as hydrogen direct reduction (HDR), this

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7812-559: The HIsarna process is more energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional steelmaking processes. Steel can be produced from direct-reduced iron, which in turn can be produced from iron ore as it undergoes chemical reduction with hydrogen. Renewable hydrogen allows steelmaking without the use of fossil fuels . In 2021, a pilot plant in Sweden tested this process. Direct reduction occurs at 1,500 °F (820 °C). The iron

7938-579: The Navy William E. Chandler and U.S. Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board and Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers. On one of these trips, he formed business ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester , England. He returned to the United States as Whitworth's agent and, in 1885, was granted an extended furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques

8064-586: The Netherlands were committed to using green hydrogen to make steel from scratch. HDR is employed in the HYBRIT project in Sweden. However, this approach requires a substantial amount of renewables to produce the needed renewable hydrogen. For the European Union, it is estimated that the hydrogen demand for hydrogen-based steelmaking would require 180 GW of renewable capacity. Another developing possible technology

8190-407: The air in the hot blast is heated by burning fossil fuels, which often is the case, this is an additional source of carbon dioxide emissions. The steel industry produces 7-8% of CO 2 emissions created by humans (almost two tonnes for every tonne of steel produced), and it is one of the most energy-consuming industries on earth. There are several carbon abatement and decarbonization strategies in

8316-545: The armor plate for warships, and one-third of the big cannon forgings for the U.S armed forces were turned out by Bethlehem Steel. Steel is an alloy made up of iron and carbon, with additional minerals added depending on its use. In the 20th century, sourcing the necessary minerals in the United States was significantly more expensive than supplying them from elsewhere. Bethlehem Steel is just one of several U.S. companies to have sourced iron from Latin America. Bethlehem Steel held

8442-472: The armour materials used and the qualities of the projectile hitting it. The increased protection caused by increasing the slope while keeping the plate thickness constant, is due to a proportional increase of area density and thus mass, and thus offers no weight benefit. Therefore, the other possible effects of sloping, such as deflection, deforming and ricochet of a projectile, have been the reasons to apply sloped armour in armoured vehicles design. Another motive

8568-481: The armour plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret, and there is a program to upgrade the rest (see Chobham armour ). Plastic metal was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940. The original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen . It was typically applied in

8694-407: The basic oxygen method. In HIsarna ironmaking process, iron ore is processed almost directly into liquid iron or hot metal . The process is based around a type of blast furnace called a cyclone converter furnace , which makes it possible to skip the process of manufacturing pig iron pellets that is necessary for the basic oxygen steelmaking process. Without the necessity of this preparatory step,

8820-411: The belt armour is designed to prevent penetration, by either being too thick for the warhead to penetrate, or sloped to a degree that would deflect either projectile. Often, the main belt armour was supplemented with a torpedo bulkhead spaced several metres behind the main belt, designed to maintain the ship's watertight integrity even if the main belt were penetrated. The air-space between the belt and

8946-463: The blast furnace where the iron ore is reduced to pig iron, helping to achieve the high activation energy. The hot blast temperature can be from 900 to 1,300 °C (1,650 to 2,370 °F) depending on the stove design and condition. Oil, tar , natural gas, powdered coal and oxygen can also be injected into the furnace to combine with the coke to release additional energy and increase the percentage of reducing gases present, increasing productivity. If

9072-401: The calcium oxide can react to remove silicon oxide impurities: SiO 2 + CaO → CaSiO 3 This use of limestone to provide a flux occurs both in the blast furnace (to obtain pig iron) and in the basic oxygen steel making (to obtain steel). Further carbon dioxide emissions result from the hot blast , which is used to increase the heat of the blast furnace. The hot blast pumps hot air into

9198-607: The company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating used by the U.S. Navy . The company continued to prosper during the early 1880s, but its share of the rail market began to decline in the face of competition from growing Pittsburgh and Scranton -based firms, such as the Carnegie Steel Company and Lackawanna Steel . The nation's decision to rebuild the Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Company's destiny. Following

9324-457: The construction trades. Galvanized sheet steel under the name BETHCON was widely produced for use as duct work or spiral conduit. The company also produced forged products for defense, power generation, and steel-producing companies. From 1949 to 1952, Bethlehem Steel had a contract with the U.S. federal government to roll uranium fuel rods for nuclear reactors in Bethlehem Steel's Lackawanna, New York plant. Workers were not aware of

9450-481: The dangers of the hazardous substance and were not given protective equipment. Some workers have since attempted to receive compensation under a year 2000 radiation-exposure law. The law required the U.S. Labor Department to compensate workers up to $ 150,000 if they developed cancer later in life, provided their work history involved enough radiation exposure to significantly increase their cancer risk. Bethlehem Steel workers have not been awarded this compensation because

9576-604: The early 1900s, Samuel Broadbent led an initiative to diversify the company. The corporation branched out from steel, with iron mines in Cuba and shipyards around the country. In 1913, under Broadbent, Bethlehem Steel acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts , assuming the role of one of the world's major shipbuilders. In 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation Ltd. In 1922, Bethlehem Steel purchased

9702-413: The effectiveness of kinetic energy penetrators because the interaction with each plate can cause the round to tumble, deflect, deform, or disintegrate. This effect can be enhanced when the armour is sloped . Spaced armour can also offer increased protection against HEAT projectiles. This occurs because the shaped charge warhead can detonate prematurely (at the first surface), so that the metal jet that

9828-564: The effectiveness of the warhead. Slat armour can be defeated by tandem-charge designs such as the RPG-27 and RPG-29 . Electric armour is a recent development in the United Kingdom by the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory . A vehicle is fitted with two thin shells, separated by insulating material. The outer shell holds an enormous electric charge , while the inner shell

9954-513: The emergency vessel SS Sinclair Superflame at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts . In 1946, Bethlehem Steel signed a contract with mining company LKAB to contribute to the recovery of the post-World War II recovery of the iron ore industry in northern Sweden . Following end of World War II, the Bethlehem Steel plant continued to supply a wide variety of structural shapes for

10080-462: The end of 1995, Bethlehem Steel closed steel-making at its main Bethlehem plant. After roughly 140 years of metal production in Bethlehem, Bethlehem Steel ceased its Bethlehem operations. Two years later, in 1997, Bethlehem Steel Corporation ceased shipbuilding activities in an attempt to preserve its steel-making operations. In 2001, however, Bethlehem Steel filed for bankruptcy and, in 2003, the company dissolved. In 1998, after denied pension benefits,

10206-569: The end of the 1850s when the Bessemer process became the first successful method of steelmaking in high quantity followed by the open-hearth furnace . Modern steelmaking processes can be divided into three steps: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel. Secondary steelmaking involves adding or removing other elements such as alloying agents and dissolved gases. Tertiary steelmaking involves casting into sheets, rolls or other forms. Multiple techniques are available for each step. Basic oxygen steelmaking

10332-669: The factory floor and in the company offices. After the war, female workers were promptly fired in favor of male counterparts. On Liberty Fleet Day , September 27, 1941, then U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was present at the launching of the first Liberty ship SS Patrick Henry at Bethlehem Steel's Bethlehem Fairfield Shipyard in Baltimore . Also launched the same day were the Liberty SS James McKay at Bethlehem Sparrows Point Shipyard in Sparrows Point, Maryland , and

10458-587: The father of the U.S. Steel Industry, accompanied Bethlehem Iron directors Robert H. Sayre , Elisha Packer Wilbur, president of Lehigh Valley Railroad , William Thurston, and Joseph Wharton , founder of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania , to meet with Jaques in Philadelphia . In early 1886, Bethlehem Iron and the Whitworth Company executed a contract. In the spring 1886, Congress passed

10584-513: The fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1, 1861, the company's title was changed again, this time to the Bethlehem Iron Company. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1, 1861, and was operationalized on January 4, 1863. The first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863 with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26, 1863. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, in 1867, were completed. During its early years,

10710-418: The following chemical reaction: CaCO 3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO 2 (g) Carbon dioxide is an additional source of emissions in this reaction. Modern industry has introduced calcium oxide (CaO, quicklime ) as a replacement. It acts as a chemical flux , removing impurities (such as Sulfur or Phosphorus (e.g. apatite or fluorapatite ) ) in the form of slag and keeps emissions of CO 2 low. For example,

10836-452: The forging and armor contracts on June 28, 1887. Between 1888 and 1892, the Bethlehem Iron Company completed the first U.S. heavy-forging plant. It was designed by John Fritz with the assistance of Russell Davenport , who joined Bethlehem Iron in 1888. By fall 1890, Bethlehem Iron was delivering gun forging to the U.S. Navy and was completing facilities to provide armor plating. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair , Bethlehem Steel provided

10962-511: The heavy structural grades produced at the Bethlehem plant. In 1991, Bethlehem Steel Corporation discontinued coal mining it had been conducting under the name BethEnergy and the company exited the railroad car business two years later, in 1993. In 1992, the Johnstown plants of the Bethlehem Steel, which had been founded in 1852 by The Cambria Iron Company of Johnstown and were purchased by Bethlehem Steel in 1923, were forced into closure. By

11088-456: The high temperatures are needed to achieve the activation energy for this reaction. A small amount of carbon bonds with the iron, forming pig iron , which is an intermediary before steel, as it has carbon content that is too high – around 4%. To reduce the carbon content in pig iron and obtain the desired carbon content of steel, the pig iron is re-melted and oxygen is blown through in a process called basic oxygen steelmaking , which occurs in

11214-417: The highest recycling rates of any material, with around 30% of the world's steel being made from recycled components. However, steel cannot be recycled forever, and the recycling processes, using arc furnaces, use electricity. In the blast furnace, the iron oxides are reduced by a combination of CO, H 2 , and carbon. Only around 10% of the iron oxides are reduced by H 2 . With H 2 enrichment processing,

11340-494: The highly energetic fragments destroying the geometry of the metal jet generated by the hollow charge , greatly diminishing the penetration. Ceramic layers can also be used as part of composite armour solutions. The high hardness of some ceramic materials serves as a disruptor that shatters and spreads the kinetic energy of projectiles. Composite armour is armour consisting of layers of two or more materials with significantly different physical properties; steel and ceramics are

11466-671: The hull also adds buoyancy . Several wartime vessels had belt armour that was thinner or shallower than was desirable, to speed production and conserve resources. Deck armour on aircraft carriers is usually at the flight deck level, but on some early carriers was at the hangar deck . (See armoured flight deck .) Armour plating is not common on aircraft, which generally rely on their speed and maneuverability to avoid attacks from enemy aircraft and ground fire, rather than trying to resist impacts. Additionally, any armour capable of stopping large-calibre anti-aircraft fire or missile fragments would result in an unacceptable weight penalty. So, only

11592-521: The hull or turret of an AFV. The plates can be made of any material and are designed to be retrofitted to an AFV to withstand weapons that can penetrate the original armour of the vehicle. An advantage of appliqué armour is the possibility to tailor a vehicle's protection level to a specific threat scenario. Vehicle armour is sometimes improvised in the midst of an armed conflict by vehicle crews or individual units. In World War II , British, Canadian and Polish tank crews welded spare strips of tank track to

11718-759: The hulls of their Sherman tanks. U.S. tank crews often added sand bags in the hull and turrets on Sherman tanks, often in an elaborate cage made of girders. Some Sherman tanks were up-armoured in the field with glacis plates and other armour cut from knocked-out tanks to create Improvised Jumbos , named after the heavily armoured M4A3E2 assault tank. In the Vietnam War , U.S. " gun trucks " were armoured with sandbags and locally fabricated steel armour plate. More recently, U.S. troops in Iraq armoured Humvees and various military transport vehicles with scrap materials: this came to be known as " hillbilly armour " or "haji armour" by

11844-401: The impact of shrapnel , bullets , shells , rockets , and missiles , protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks , aircraft , and ships . Civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by officials (e.g., presidential limousines ), reporters and others in conflict zones or where violent crime

11970-407: The income of exporting it.” Bethlehem Steel ranked seventh among U.S. corporations in the value of wartime production contracts during World War II . Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation 's 15 shipyards produced a total of 1,121 ships, more than any other builder during the war and nearly one-fifth of the U.S. Navy's two-ocean fleet. Its shipbuilding operations employed as many as 180,000 persons,

12096-448: The industry decreased by a factor of 1000, to just 0.003-man-hours per tonne. In 2013, 70% of global steel output was produced using the basic oxygen furnace. Furnaces can convert up to 350 tons of iron into steel in less than 40 minutes compared to 10–12 hours in an open hearth furnace . Electric arc furnace steelmaking is the manufacture of steel from scrap or direct reduced iron melted by electric arcs . In an electric arc furnace,

12222-474: The industry will need to find significant reductions in emissions. Steelmaking has played a crucial role in the development of ancient, medieval, and modern technological societies. Early processes of steel making were made during the classical era in Ancient China , India , and Rome . Cast iron is a hard, brittle material that is difficult to work, whereas steel is malleable, relatively easily formed and

12348-473: The iron ore at a very high temperature (1,700 degrees Celsius or over 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit) in the presence of oxygen (from the air) and a type of coal called coke . At those temperatures, the iron ore releases its oxygen, which is carried away by the carbon from the coke in the form of carbon dioxide. Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO 2 (g) The reaction occurs due to the lower (favorable) energy state of carbon dioxide compared to iron oxide, and

12474-458: The iron used in the creation of a 45.5-foot steel axle to support the world's first Ferris wheel , a 264-foot (80 m) structure. The iron was manufactured in Bethlehem Steel's blast furnaces and represented the largest single steel forging ever constructed at the time. In 1898, Frederick Winslow Taylor joined Bethlehem Steel as a management consultant in order to solve an expensive machine shop capacity problem. Taylor and Maunsel White, with

12600-475: The largest such pension liability assumption in U.S. history. In 2001, Bethlehem Steel filed for bankruptcy , becoming the 25th American steelmaking company in the span of four years between 1998 and 2001 to file for bankruptcy protection. In 2003, the company was dissolved with its remaining assets, including six plants, acquired by the International Steel Group . International Steel Group, in turn,

12726-500: The late 1950s and early 1960s as the company began manufacturing 23 million tons of steel annually. In 1958, the company's president, Arthur B. Homer, was the highest-paid U.S. business executive, and the firm built the first phase of what would become its largest plant, Burns Harbor between 1962 and 1964 in Burns Harbor, Indiana . In 1967, the company lost its bid to provide the steel for the original World Trade Center . The contracts,

12852-448: The lid of the furnace. Tight control of ladle metallurgy is associated with producing high grades of steel in which the tolerances in chemistry and consistency are narrow. As of 2021 , steelmaking is estimated to be responsible for around 11% of the global emissions of carbon dioxide and around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Making 1 ton of steel emits about 1.8 tons of carbon dioxide. The bulk of these emissions results from

12978-576: The lion's share of the company's total employment of 300,000. Eugene Grace was president of Bethlehem Steel from 1916 to 1945, and chairman of the board from 1945 until his retirement in 1957. Grace orchestrated Bethlehem Steel's World War II wartime efforts. In 1943, Grace promised U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Bethlehem Steel would manufacture one ship per day, and he ultimately exceeded that commitment by 15 ships. World War II, however, drained Bethlehem Steel of much of its male workforce. The company hired female employees to guard and work on

13104-654: The most common types of material in composite armour. Composite armour was initially developed in the 1940s, although it did not enter service until much later and the early examples are often ignored in the face of newer armour such as Chobham armour . Composite armour's effectiveness depends on its composition and may be effective against kinetic energy penetrators as well as shaped charge munitions ; heavy metals are sometimes included specifically for protection from kinetic energy penetrators. Composite armour used on modern Western and Israeli main battle tanks largely consists of non-explosive reactive armour (NERA) elements -

13230-526: The past century. We wouldn't have won World War I and World War II without it", historian Lance Metz told The Washington Post in 2003. In the 1930s, the company also manufactured the steel sections and parts for the Golden Gate Bridge and built for Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales ( YPF ), a new oil refinery in La Plata , Argentina, which was the tenth-largest in the world. During World War II, as much as 70 percent of airplane cylinder forgings, one-quarter of

13356-442: The practice. Meanwhile, the age of Bethlehem Steel workers was increasing, and the ratio of retirees to workers was rising, meaning that the value created by each worker had to cover a greater portion of pension costs than before. Former top manager Eugene Grace had failed to adequately invest in the company's pension plans during the 1950s. When the company was at its peak, pension contributions that should have been made were not. As

13482-406: The process is controlled to ensure that impurities such as silicon and phosphorus are removed from the metal. The modern process was developed in 1948 by Robert Durrer , as a refinement of the Bessemer converter that replaced air with more efficient oxygen . It reduced the capital cost of the plants and smelting time, and increased labor productivity. Between 1920 and 2000, labour requirements in

13608-415: The process, either in electric arc furnaces or to create hydrogen as a fuel, emissions can be reduced dramatically. European projects from HYBRIT, LKAB , Voestalpine , and ThyssenKrupp are pursuing strategies to reduce emissions. HYBRIT claims to produce true "green steel". Top gas from the blast furnace is the gas that is normally exhausted into the air during steelmaking. This gas contains CO 2 and

13734-428: The proportion of iron oxides reduced by H 2 is increased, so that less carbon is consumed and less CO 2 is emitted. This process can reduce emissions by an estimated 20%. The HIsarna ironmaking process was described above as a way of producing iron in a "cyclone converter furnace" without the pre-processing steps of choking/agglomeration, which reduces the CO 2 emissions by around 20%. One speculative idea

13860-497: The radiation dose involved in processing fresh uranium fuel is low and produces a small risk relative to the baseline risk. The larger danger in processing uranium is chemical poisoning from the heavy metal, which does not produce cancer. The steel industry in the U.S. prospered during and after World War II, while the steel industries in Germany and Japan lay devastated by allied bombardments. Bethlehem Steel's success reached its peak in

13986-527: The reactions inside the vessel; in contrast, in EAF steelmaking, electrical energy is used to melt the solid scrap and/or DRI materials. In recent times, EAF steelmaking technology has evolved closer to oxygen steelmaking as more chemical energy is introduced into the process. Steelmaking is one of the most carbon emission intensive industries in the world. As of 2020 , steelmaking is responsible for about 10% of greenhouse gas emissions . To mitigate global warming ,

14112-463: The second company to use the name Bethlehem Steel. However, the United States Shipbuilding Company was not reorganized as the Bethlehem Steel and Shipbuilding Company; instead, a plan was drawn up for a new company to be formed to replace the United States Shipbuilding Company. The new company was initially to be named Bethlehem Steel and Shipbuilding Company. In 1904, it instead assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Corporation. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation

14238-505: The steel industry include reduction of iron ore using green hydrogen rather than carbon, and deployment of carbon capture and storage technology. See below for further decarbonization strategies. Coal and iron ore mining are very energy intensive, and result in numerous environmental damages , from pollution, to biodiversity loss, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions. Iron ore is shipped great distances to steel mills. To make pure steel, iron and carbon are needed. On its own, iron

14364-468: The steel. Rolling also elongates the grain structure in the steel to form long lines, which enable the stress the steel is placed under when loaded to flow throughout the metal, and not be concentrated in one area. Aluminium is used when light weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars . While certainly not the strongest metal, it is cheap, lightweight, and tough enough that it can serve as easy armour. Wrought iron

14490-584: The steelmaking industry, which on the basic manufacturing process used. Options fall into three general categories: switching the energy source from fossil fuels to wind and solar ; increasing the efficiency of processing; and innovative new technological processes. All three may be used in combination. "Green steel" is the term used for manufacturing steel without the use of fossil fuels , that is, zero-emission products. However, not all companies claiming to produce green steel meet this criterion. Some merely reduce emissions. Australia produces nearly 40% of

14616-615: The vital parts of an aircraft, such as the ejection seat and engines, are usually armoured. This is one area where titanium is used extensively as armour plating. For example, in the American Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet-built Sukhoi Su-25 ground attack aircraft, as well as the Mil Mi-24 Hind ground-attack helicopter, the pilot sits in a titanium enclosure known as

14742-518: The world's iron ore, and the government, via the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA), is helping to fund many research projects involving direct reduced ironmaking (DRI) to increase green steel and iron production. Large companies such as Rio Tinto , BHP , and BlueScope are developing green steel projects. CO 2 emissions vary according to energy sources. When sustainable energy such as wind or solar are used to power

14868-473: Was acquired by Mittal Steel in 2005, which then merged with Arcelor to become ArcelorMittal in 2006. Steelmaking Steelmaking has existed for millennia, but it was not commercialized on a massive scale until the mid-19th century. An ancient process of steelmaking was the crucible process . In the 1850s and 1860s, the Bessemer process and the Siemens-Martin process turned steelmaking into

14994-420: Was aware that the U.S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet. Jaques contacted the Bethlehem Iron Company with a proposal to serve as an intermediary between it and the Whitworth Company, so Bethlehem Iron could erect a heavy-forging plant to produce ordnance. In 1885, John F. Fritz , sometimes referred to as

15120-568: Was created to be the steelmaking company's corporate parent. Bethlehem Steel survived the earliest declines in the American steel industry beginning in the 1970s. In 1982, however, the company suspended most of its steelmaking operations after posting a loss of $ 1.5 billion, attributable to increased foreign competition, rising labor and pensions costs, and other factors. The company filed for bankruptcy in 2001 and final dissolution in 2003 when its remaining assets were sold to International Steel Group . In 1857, what ultimately became Bethlehem Steel

15246-517: Was de-listed in 2002, Bethlehem Steel was traded on the NYSE under the two letter symbol BS. Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the Gray rolling mill and produced the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in the United States. These shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In

15372-515: Was formed by Schwab, who had recently resigned from U.S. Steel , and by Joseph Wharton , who founded the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia . Schwab became the first president and first chairman of the board of directors. After its formation, the Bethlehem Steel Corporation purchased the Bethlehem Steel Company and its remaining subsidiaries from the United States Shipbuilding Company. The Bethlehem Steel Company became

15498-504: Was in a bloomery . Early modern methods of producing steel were often labor-intensive and highly skilled arts. See: An important aspect of the Industrial Revolution was the development of large-scale methods of producing forgeable metal ( bar iron or steel). The puddling furnace was initially a means of producing wrought iron but was later applied to steel production. The real revolution in modern steelmaking only began at

15624-595: Was launched as the Saucona Iron Company in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania by Augustus Wolle. That same year, the Panic of 1857 , a national financial crisis, halted the company's further organization. But the organization subsequently restarted, its site was moved elsewhere to South Bethlehem , and the company's name was changed to the Bethlehem Rolling Mill and Iron Company. On June 14, 1860, the board of directors of

15750-691: Was used in the construction of many of America's largest and most famed structures. Among major buildings, Bethlehem produced steel for 28 Liberty Street , the Chrysler Building , the Empire State Building , Madison Square Garden , Rockefeller Center , and the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City and Merchandise Mart in Chicago . Among major bridges, Bethlehem steel was used in constructing

15876-529: Was used on ironclad warships . Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 12.5 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one metre of solid wood . It has since been replaced by steel due to steel being significantly stronger. Titanium has almost twice the density of aluminium, but can have a yield strength similar to high strength steels, giving it a high specific strength . It also has a high specific resilience and specific toughness. So, despite being more expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight

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