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106-719: Berkeley's offices and programs are centered with those of Yale Divinity School on the Sterling Divinity Quadrangle, although Berkeley also maintains a separate center for worship and some programs at the nearby Berkeley Center on St. Ronan Street. Prior to the American Revolution , the Church of England in America existed under the episcopal oversight of the Bishop of London . There were no American bishops and ecclesial authority

212-755: A Diploma in Anglican Studies for M.Div candidates and a Certificate in Anglican Studies for M.A.R. and S.T.M. students. These are conferred in addition to the degree proper from Yale Divinity School . Approximately one third of Yale Divinity School's students undertaking the master's degree in divinity are members of Berkeley. Like all seminaries within The Episcopal Church , Berkeley requires and helps to coordinate Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE) and Supervised Ministry Internships for all of its Master of Divinity candidates who are preparing for ordination . Daily corporate worship at Berkeley occurs in

318-477: A British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations, in what became known as the Gaspee Affair . The affair was investigated for possible treason, but no action was taken. In 1773, private letters were published in which Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson claimed that the colonists could not enjoy all English liberties, and in which Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver called for

424-648: A Summer School of Theology for Women from 1923 to 1925. After many years of discussion about potential moves or mergers, Ladd transferred Berkeley to New Haven in 1928 to take advantage of the resources of Yale University . The impossibility of immediately selling the Middletown campus, as well as the Great Depression caused another prolonged period of financial instability from 1929 to 1935. Eventually, these were overcome and Berkeley moved into Sachem Hall (renamed Brewster Hall for The Rt. Rev. Chauncey B. Brewster ) at

530-536: A Yale degree. As a consequence of this merger, Berkeley sold its campus on Sachem Street to Yale and purchased a converted Edwardian mansion on St. Ronan Street to house the Deanery , chapel, offices, classrooms, and a few student apartments. Its former campus was demolished between 2009 and 2012 to make room for two new residential colleges including Pauli Murray College , named for the Episcopal priest and activist . Allen

636-544: A boycott on imports of all British merchandise . American spokesmen such as Samuel Adams, James Otis, John Hancock, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and many others, rejected aristocracy and propounded " republicanism " as the political philosophy that was best suited to American conditions. The Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout the Empire and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval or even consultation. They argued that

742-492: A committed Christian socialist . In 1919, at the immediate conclusion of the war, a guest lecture on Russia sparked a small scandal with accusations of “ Bolshevism at Berkeley.” Though Ladd was ultimately vindicated, the incident resulted in permanent tensions with certain members of the Board. Ladd remained committed to Social Gospel movements throughout his tenure and also expanded public access to seminary education, inaugurating

848-473: A large military and naval force: Convinced that the Revolution was the work of a full few miscreants who had rallied an armed rabble to their cause, they expected that the revolutionaries would be intimidated .... Then the vast majority of Americans, who were loyal but cowed by the terroristic tactics ... would rise up, kick out the rebels, and restore loyal government in each colony. Washington forced

954-797: A meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities. A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met British admiral Richard Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11 in what became known as the Staten Island Peace Conference . Howe demanded that the Americans retract the Declaration of Independence , which they refused to do, and negotiations ended. The British then seized New York City and nearly captured Washington's army. They made

1060-530: A month later. It was into this context that the Rev. William Palmer Ladd was suddenly thrust as the new dean. William Palmer Ladd, who had arrived at Berkeley as a professor in 1916 was formally inaugurated as dean on the Feast of St. Simon and St. Jude , on 28 October 1918. Ladd was a noted liturgical scholar, and like many of his English colleagues––including the visiting professor, priest, and author, Percy Dearmer ––was

1166-457: A much larger force. As Benjamin Franklin wrote to Joseph Priestley in October 1775: Britain, at the expense of three millions, has killed 150 Yankees this campaign, which is £20,000 a head ... During the same time, 60,000 children have been born in America. From these data his mathematical head will easily calculate the time and expense necessary to kill us all. In the winter of 1775,

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1272-768: A structure of shared sovereignty during prosecution of the Revolutionary War and facilitating international relations and alliances. The Articles were fully ratified on March 1, 1781. At that point, the Continental Congress was dissolved and a new government of the United States in Congress Assembled took its place the following day, on March 2, 1782, with Samuel Huntington leading the Congress as presiding officer. According to British historian Jeremy Black ,

1378-417: A subsequent lawsuit, lodged against the seminary by its former finance director. Over the course of his decade-long tenure, The Very Rev. Joseph H. Britton substantially stabilized relationships with Yale Divinity School and the university, and undertook a series of new initiatives including urban ministries and international exchanges. Britton was succeeded by The Very Rev. Andrew McGowan in 2014. As part of

1484-466: A vehicle for deliberation and collective action. During secret debates, conservative Joseph Galloway proposed the creation of a colonial Parliament that would be able to approve or disapprove acts of the British Parliament, but his idea was tabled in a vote of 6 to 5 and was subsequently removed from the record. Congress called for a boycott beginning on December 1, 1774, of all British goods; it

1590-627: Is celebrated Wednesdays at 6:00 PM in Yale Divinity School's Marquand Chapel with the Berkeley Chapel Choir. 41°19′24″N 72°55′24″W  /  41.3232°N 72.9233°W  / 41.3232; -72.9233 American Revolution The American Revolution was a rebellion and political movement in the Thirteen Colonies which peaked when colonists initiated an ultimately successful war for independence against

1696-948: The Boston Tea Party and dumped chests of tea owned by the British East India Company into Boston Harbor . London closed Boston Harbor and enacted a series of punitive laws , which effectively ended self-government in Massachusetts. In late 1774, 12 of the Thirteen Colonies (Georgia joined in 1775) sent delegates to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia . It began coordinating Patriot resistance through underground networks of committees . In April 1775 British forces attempted to disarm local militias around Boston and engaged them . On June 14, 1775,

1802-575: The Commonwealth government responsible for the execution of King Charles I . After the Stuart Restoration of 1660, Massachusetts did not recognize Charles II as the legitimate king for more than a year after his coronation . In King Philip's War (1675–1678), the New England colonies fought a handful of Native American tribes without military assistance from England, thereby contributing to

1908-518: The Declaration of Independence , which was drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson and presented by the Committee of Five , which had been charged with its development. The Congress struck several provisions of Jefferson's draft, and then adopted it unanimously on July 4. The Declaration embodied the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism , rejected monarchy and aristocracy , and famously proclaimed that " all men are created equal ". With

2014-513: The Dominion of New England . Edmund Andros was appointed royal governor and tasked with governing the new Dominion under his direct rule . Colonial assemblies and town meetings were restricted, new taxes were levied, and rights were abridged. Dominion rule triggered bitter resentment throughout New England. When James tried to rule without Parliament , the English aristocracy removed him from power in

2120-626: The General Theological Seminary in New York, founded in 1820, served as the principal center of theological study in the Northeast. Berkeley Divinity School began as the theology department of Trinity College, Hartford , an Episcopal school which was founded by the Rt. Rev. Thomas Church Brownell in 1823. In 1849, the Rev. John Williams , then President of Trinity, organized the department with

2226-618: The Glorious Revolution of 1688. This was followed by the 1689 Boston revolt , which overthrew Dominion rule. Colonial governments reasserted their control after the revolt. The new monarchs, William and Mary , granted new charters to the individual New England colonies, and local democratic self-government was restored. After the Glorious Revolution, the British Empire was a constitutional monarchy with sovereignty in

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2332-601: The Hat Act of 1732, and the Iron Act of 1750. Colonial reactions to these policies were mixed. The Molasses Act of 1733 placed a duty of six pence per gallon upon foreign molasses imported into the colonies. This act was particularly egregious to the New England colonists, who protested it as taxation without representation. The act increased the smuggling of foreign molasses, and the British government ceased enforcement efforts after

2438-612: The Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton , thereby regaining control of most of New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and they have become iconic events of the war. In September 1777, in anticipation of a coordinated attack by the British Army on the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, the Continental Congress was forced to depart Philadelphia temporarily for Baltimore , where they continued deliberations. In 1777,

2544-548: The Jefferson Medical College and held this position from 1841 to 1856, when he resigned because of gout and lung disease. He operated on hundreds of patients to repair deformities and became the first surgeon in 1846 to administer ether anesthesia in Philadelphia. He is best known for the "Mütter Flap" which he used in order to treat burn victims; the grafting procedure is still used today. Thomas Dent Mütter

2650-581: The King's College, New York (now Columbia University ) as an Anglican institution, in part to prepare men for the ministry. Johnson had been a close friend of the English priest, philosopher, and missionary George Berkeley and had induced him to donate his farm and library to Yale in 1731. In 1794, Connecticut churchmen founded the Episcopal Academy at Cheshire in the hope of later elevating it to collegiate status, though this did not come to fruition. Instead,

2756-704: The King-in-Parliament . Aristocrats inherited seats in the House of Lords , while the gentry and merchants controlled the elected House of Commons . The king ruled through cabinet ministers who depended on majority support in the Commons to govern effectively. British subjects on both sides of the Atlantic proudly claimed the unwritten British constitution , with its guarantees of the rights of Englishmen , protected personal liberty better than any other government. It served as

2862-619: The Kingdom of Great Britain . Leaders of the American Revolution were colonial separatist leaders who originally sought more autonomy as British subjects, but later assembled to support the Revolutionary War, which ended British colonial rule over the colonies, establishing their independence as the United States of America in July 1776. Discontent with colonial rule began shortly after

2968-511: The Olive Branch Petition in which they attempted to come to an accord with King George. The king, however, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion which declared that the states were "in rebellion" and the members of Congress were traitors. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. It was a British victory—but at a great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from

3074-533: The Revolutionary War . During that time, the kingdoms of France and Spain entered as allies of the United States. The decisive victory came in the fall of 1781, when the combined American and French armies captured an entire British army in the Siege of Yorktown . The defeat led to the collapse of King George's control of Parliament, with a majority now in favor of ending the war on American terms. On September 3, 1783,

3180-639: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 , designating the territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River as an Indian Reserve closed to white settlement. The Proclamation failed to stop westward migration while angering settlers, fur traders, and land speculators in the Thirteen Colonies. George Grenville became prime minister in 1763, and "the need for money played a part in every important decision made by Grenville regarding

3286-627: The Second Continental Congress responded by authorizing formation of the Continental Army and appointing George Washington as its commander-in-chief. In August the king proclaimed Massachusetts to be in a state of open defiance and rebellion . The Continental Army surrounded Boston, and the British withdrew by sea in March 1776, leaving the Patriots in control in every colony. In July 1776,

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3392-463: The Tea Act lowering the price of taxed tea exported to the colonies, to help the British East India Company undersell smuggled untaxed Dutch tea. Special consignees were appointed to sell the tea to bypass colonial merchants. The act was opposed by those who resisted the taxes and also by smugglers who stood to lose business. In every colony demonstrators warned merchants not to bring in tea that included

3498-528: The consent of the governed and the rule of law . The Thirteen Colonies were established in the 17th century as part of the English Empire , and they formed part of the British Empire after the union of England and Scotland in 1707. The development of a unique American identity can be traced to the English Civil War (1642–1651) and its aftermath. The Puritan colonies of New England supported

3604-407: The evangelical -leaning Virginia Theological Seminary . The name of the seminary alludes to the vision of philosopher and Bishop George Berkeley , who a century earlier had planned a seminary in the western hemisphere; this use of his name for an educational institution precedes its association with California by some decades. The Middletown campus consisted of two houses adjacent to the Church of

3710-515: The "Berkeley Office." Berkeley has had a long history of liturgical development which began during the incumbency of The Very Rev. William Palmer Ladd, dean and liturgist , who authored the Prayer Book Interleaves in 1941. In term-time, Morning Prayer and Holy Eucharist are celebrated Monday through Friday at 7:30 AM. Evening Prayer is read on Monday and Thursdays (5:30 PM and 5:45 PM, respectively). An evening "Community Eucharist "

3816-432: The 1740s. On the other hand, certain merchants and local industries benefitted from the restrictions on foreign competition. The limits on foreign-built ships greatly benefitted the colonial shipbuilding industry, particularly in New England. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction that the acts triggered was more serious, as the merchants most directly affected were also

3922-466: The American Revolution (see Salutary neglect ) . During the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British government fielded 45,000 soldiers, half British Regulars and half colonial volunteers. The colonies also contributed money to the war effort; however, two-fifths of this spending was reimbursed by the British government. Great Britain defeated France and acquired that nation's territory east of

4028-469: The Americans invaded northeastern Quebec under generals Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery , expecting to rally sympathetic colonists there. The attack was a failure; many Americans were killed, captured, or died of smallpox. In March 1776, aided by the fortification of Dorchester Heights with cannons recently captured at Fort Ticonderoga , the Continental Army led by George Washington forced

4134-646: The British Parliament's passage of the Townshend Acts . In an effort to quell the mounting rebellion, King George III deployed troops to Boston . A local confrontation resulted in the troops killing protesters in the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. In 1772, anti-tax demonstrators in Rhode Island destroyed the Royal Navy customs schooner Gaspee . On December 16, 1773, activists disguised as Indians instigated

4240-466: The British had significant advantages, including a highly trained army, the world's largest navy, and an efficient system of public finance that could easily fund the war. However, they seriously misunderstood the depth of support for the American Patriot position, misinterpreting the situation as merely a large-scale riot. The British government believed that they could overawe the Americans by sending

4346-617: The British out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were amassing forces at their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia . They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn . This gave the British control of New York City and its strategic harbor . Following that victory, they requested

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4452-455: The British sent Burgoyne's invasion force from Canada south to New York to seal off New England. Their aim was to isolate New England, which the British perceived as the primary source of agitation. Rather than move north to support Burgoyne, the British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a major case of mis-coordination, capturing it from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne

4558-637: The British signed the Treaty of Paris giving the United States nearly all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes . About 60,000 Loyalists migrated to other British territories in Canada and elsewhere, but the great majority remained in the United States. With its victory in the American Revolution, the United States became the first constitutional republic in world history founded on

4664-498: The British to evacuate Boston . The revolutionaries now fully controlled all thirteen colonies and were ready to declare independence. There still were many Loyalists, but they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled. Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of Massachusetts outside Boston 's city limits, and

4770-551: The British to deploy troops to Boston. A Boston town meeting declared that no obedience was due to parliamentary laws and called for the convening of a convention. A convention assembled but only issued a mild protest before dissolving itself. In January 1769, Parliament responded to the unrest by reactivating the Treason Act 1543 which called for subjects outside the realm to face trials for treason in England. The governor of Massachusetts

4876-416: The Chapel of St. Luke in the Berkeley Center on St. Ronan Street. This is officially the fourth Chapel of St. Luke (the previous ones being in Middletown, and two iterations on Sachem Street in New Haven). Worship generally conforms to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer , the Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church. Worship alternates between Rite I (traditional language), Rite II (modern language), and

4982-419: The English. Grenville believed that the colonies should help pay the troop costs. In 1764 Parliament passed the Sugar Act , decreasing the existing customs duties on sugar and molasses but providing stricter measures of enforcement and collection. That same year, Grenville proposed direct taxes on the colonies to raise revenue, but he delayed action to see whether the colonies would propose some way to raise

5088-420: The French surgeon Guillaume Dupuytren , as well as a short period studying under surgeons in London, UK before returning to the United States in 1832. He opened his first medical office in Philadelphia. In 1835, Thomas Harris invited Mütter to be an Assistant teacher of surgery at the Philadelphia Institute at a summer school of medicine. In 1836 he was elected as Fellow of the College of Physicians. In 1841 he

5194-439: The Holy Trinity , with several buildings and extra wings being added over the next half century. Holy Trinity acted as the functional pro-cathedral of the Diocese and for the first six years students worshipped there. In 1860 Mary W. Mütter (née Alsop) endowed a chapel in memory of her late husband Dr. Thomas Dent Mütter . On the Feast of the Epiphany , 1861 the first Chapel of St. Luke the Physician opened to public worship. It

5300-582: The Loyalists suddenly found themselves on the defensive with no protection from the British army. In each of the Thirteen Colonies, American patriots overthrew their existing governments, closed courts, and drove out British colonial officials. They held elected conventions and established their own legislatures , which existed outside any legal parameters established by the British. New constitutions were drawn up in each state to supersede royal charters. They proclaimed that they were now states , no longer colonies . On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified

5406-418: The Mississippi River. In early 1763, the Bute ministry decided to permanently garrison 10,000 soldiers in North America. This would allow approximately 1,500 politically well-connected British Army officers to remain on active duty with full pay (stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable). A standing army would provide defense against Native Americans in

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5512-609: The Rev. Thomas Winthrop Coit as professor of Church History. Among the first class of assisting faculty were the Rev. Abner Jackson , as well as the Rev. Thomas M. Clark , and the Rev. Arthur Cleveland Coxe , both of whom later became bishops. Instead of remaining within the college (like the departments at Kenyon College and Sewanee: The University of the South ), the fledgling divinity school moved to Middletown, Connecticut in 1853 after Williams, now Assistant Bishop of Connecticut , resigned his college presidency to focus on his diocesan work. Gifts from Edward S. Hall ($ 20,000) and

5618-458: The Rev. William Jarvis ($ 10,000, including his former house) permitted the growth of the seminary at Middletown. Berkeley was formally incorporated on 3 May 1854. The remaining students who were mid-course at Trinity were transferred to Middletown in 1854, and by 1859 the seminary was teaching nineteen students. The seminary was intended to act as a mediating alternative between the Anglo-Catholic –leaning General Theological Seminary in New York and

5724-450: The Second Continental Congress began to take on the role of governing a new nation . It passed the Lee Resolution for national independence on July 2, and on July 4, 1776, adopted the Declaration of Independence , which embodied the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism , rejected monarchy and aristocracy , and famously proclaimed that " all men are created equal ". The fighting continued for five years, now known as

5830-503: The Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On June 11, a committee was created by the Second Continental Congress to draft a document explaining the justifications for separation from Britain. After securing enough votes for passage, independence was voted for on July 2. Gathered at Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia , 56 of the nation's Founding Fathers , representing America's Thirteen Colonies , unanimously adopted and issued to King George III

5936-547: The Williams tenure, seminarians lived, worshipped, and studied alongside their dean and professors. Students were expected at Morning and Evening Prayer five days a week with––unusually for that period–– Eucharist every Sunday. At first, these services were celebrated in the church, but were later transferred to the chapel. By 1904, a Thursday Eucharist was added. The seminary also developed a series of academic and ecclesial affiliations, including one with Wesleyan College , allowing students in both institutions access to lectures in

6042-478: The appearance of Indigenous people, boarded the ships of the East India Company and dumped £10,000 worth of tea from their holds (approximately £636,000 in 2008) into Boston Harbor . Decades later, this event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore. The British government responded by passing four laws that came to be known as the Intolerable Acts , further darkening colonial opinion towards England. The first

6148-411: The city their main political and military base of operations, holding it until November 1783 . The city became the destination for Loyalist refugees and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network . The British also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated

6254-434: The colonies "in all cases whatsoever". The repeal nonetheless caused widespread celebrations in the colonies. In 1767, the British Parliament passed the Townshend Acts , which placed duties on several staple goods, including paper, glass, and tea, and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations. Parliament's goal was not so much to collect revenue but to assert its authority over

6360-446: The colonies exported agricultural products to Britain in return for manufactured goods. They also imported molasses, rum, and sugar from the British West Indies . The British government pursued a policy of mercantilism in order to grow its economic and political power. According to mercantilism, the colonies existed for the mother country's economic benefit, and the colonists' economic needs took second place. In 1651, Parliament passed

6466-622: The colonies were legally British corporations subordinate to the British Parliament. Parliament insisted that the colonists effectively enjoyed a " virtual representation ", as most British people did, since only a small minority of the British population were eligible to elect representatives to Parliament. However, Americans such as James Otis maintained that there was no one in Parliament responsible specifically to any colonial constituency, so they were not "virtually represented" by anyone in Parliament. The Rockingham government came to power in July 1765, and Parliament debated whether to repeal

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6572-541: The colonies, acknowledged that he leaked the letters, which led to him being removed from his position. In Boston, Samuel Adams set about creating new Committees of Correspondence , which linked Patriots in all 13 colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence in early 1773, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served. A total of about 7,000 to 8,000 Patriots served on these Committees; Loyalists were excluded. The committees became

6678-494: The colonies. The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties. However, in his widely read pamphlet, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania , John Dickinson argued against the constitutionality of the acts because their purpose was to raise revenue and not to regulate trade. Colonists responded to the taxes by organizing new boycotts of British goods. These boycotts were less effective, however, as

6784-406: The colonies—and for that matter by the ministries that followed up to 1776." The national debt had grown to £133 million with annual debt payments of £5 million (out of an £8 million annual budget). Stationing troops in North America on a permanent basis would cost another £360,000 a year. On a per capita basis, Americans only paid 1 shilling in taxes to the empire compared to 26 shillings paid by

6890-503: The corner of Prospect and Sachem street in 1940. After Ladd's death in 1941, he was succeeded by Prof. Charles Baker Hedrick as Acting Dean and then by the Rev. Lawrence Rose from Central Theological College, Tokyo . Rose himself had been expelled from Japan along with many other Christian missionaries in 1940. Rose left in 1947 after being elected dean of General , and was succeeded by the Rev. Percy Linwood Urban Sr., who had begun as Berkeley's professor of systematic theology in 1941. In

6996-528: The course of the 1960s, however, the seminary began to once again experience financial hardship. In 1971, as the Episcopal Church sought to reduce the number of seminaries, The Very Rev. Michael Allen was appointed dean to seek a solution to Berkeley's financial challenges. A new agreement between Yale and Berkeley resulted in a closer affiliation, rather than amalgamation with another Episcopalian institution; since then all students of Berkeley Divinity School have also been students of Yale Divinity School and take

7102-412: The crowd. They hit 11 people; three civilians died of wounds at the scene of the shooting, and two died shortly after. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre . The soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams ), but the widespread descriptions soon began to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This accelerated the downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and

7208-514: The defeat of France in the French and Indian War in 1763. Although the colonies had fought and supported the war, Parliament imposed new taxes to compensate for wartime costs and turned control of the colonies' western lands over to the British officials in Montreal . Representatives from several colonies convened the Stamp Act Congress ; its "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" argued that taxation without representation violated their rights as Englishmen . In 1767, tensions flared again following

7314-444: The development of a uniquely American identity separate from that of the British people . In the 1680s, Charles and his brother, James II , attempted to bring New England under direct English control. The colonists fiercely opposed this, and the Crown nullified their colonial charters in response. In 1686, James finalized these efforts by consolidating the separate New England colonies along with New York and New Jersey into

7420-409: The direct payment of colonial officials, which had been paid by local authorities. This would have reduced the influence of colonial representatives over their government. The letters' contents were used as evidence of a systematic plot against American rights, and discredited Hutchinson in the eyes of the people; the colonial Assembly petitioned for his recall. Benjamin Franklin, postmaster general for

7526-408: The first in a series of Navigation Acts , which restricted colonial trade with foreign countries. The Thirteen Colonies could trade with the rest of the empire but only ship certain commodities like tobacco to Britain. Any European imports bound for British America had to first pass through an English port and pay customs duties. Other laws regulated colonial industries, such as the Wool Act of 1699 ,

7632-529: The first state constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. New Jersey , South Carolina , and Virginia created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. The new states were all committed to republicanism, with no inherited offices. On May 26, 1776, John Adams wrote James Sullivan from Philadelphia warning against extending

7738-750: The franchise too far: Depend upon it, sir, it is dangerous to open so fruitful a source of controversy and altercation, as would be opened by attempting to alter the qualifications of voters. There will be no end of it. New claims will arise. Women will demand a vote. Lads from twelve to twenty one will think their rights not enough attended to, and every man, who has not a farthing, will demand an equal voice with any other in all acts of state. It tends to confound and destroy all distinctions, and prostrate all ranks, to one common level[.] The resulting constitutions in states, including those of Delaware , Maryland , Massachusetts , New York , and Virginia featured: In Pennsylvania , New Jersey , and New Hampshire ,

7844-626: The goods taxed by the Townshend Acts were widely used. In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay Colony issued a circular letter to the other colonies urging them to coordinate resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when it refused to rescind the letter. Meanwhile, a riot broke out in Boston in June 1768 over the seizure of the sloop Liberty , owned by John Hancock , for alleged smuggling. Customs officials were forced to flee, prompting

7950-417: The hated new tax. In most instances, the consignees were forced by the Americans to resign and the tea was turned back, but Massachusetts governor Hutchinson refused to allow Boston merchants to give in to pressure. A town meeting in Boston determined that the tea would not be landed, and ignored a demand from the governor to disperse. On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke

8056-578: The issuance of the Declaration of Independence, each colony began operating as independent and sovereign states. The next step was to form a union to facilitate international relations and alliances. On November 5, 1777, the Congress approved the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union and sent it to each state for ratification. The Congress immediately began operating under the Articles' terms, providing

8162-535: The journey, and Frances died from gout some months later, leaving Thomas alone at age seven. Patrick Gibson, John Mütter's business partner, convinced Robert W. Carter to take Thomas on as his ward. Carter selected for him the Llangollen School in Spotsylvania County, a grammar school that prepared boys to attend college. In 1826, he left to attend college at Virginia's Hampden-Sydney College. Mütter

8268-502: The late 1940s and early 1950s under Urban's deanship, Berkeley grew significantly, buying and renovating a number of buildings off Prospect Street. Students also moved from their long-temporary chapel in the attic of a former barn (“the upper room”) to a purpose-built chapel with 78 student and 11 faculty stalls. The Rev. Richard Hooker Wilmer Jr., previously the Episcopal Chaplain at Sewanee and then Yale, succeeded Urban in 1957. Over

8374-464: The leaders of the American resistance to British actions, and later largely determined the war effort at the state and local level. When the First Continental Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to defy the boycott by importing British goods. Meanwhile, Parliament passed

8480-463: The model for colonial governments . The Crown appointed a royal governor to exercise executive power. Property owners elected a colonial assembly with powers to legislate and levy taxes, but the British government reserved the right to veto colonial legislation. Radical Whig ideology profoundly influenced American political philosophy with its love of liberty and opposition to tyrannical government. With little industry except shipbuilding,

8586-489: The most politically active. The British government lacked the resources and information needed to control the colonies. Instead, British officials negotiated and compromised with colonial leaders to gain compliance with imperial policies. The colonies defended themselves with colonial militias , and the British government rarely sent military forces to America before 1755. According to historian Robert Middlekauff , "Americans had become almost completely self-governing" before

8692-534: The other. Williams continued as dean while succeeding as Diocesan Bishop (and Presiding Bishop from 1887) until his death in 1899. The number of students reached its low ebb in the period directly after Williams's death and by 1902, there were only seven students enrolled in the seminary. On the eve of American entrance into the First World War , there were further blows to the school. Professor Hervey Vanderbogart died suddenly in his 40s and Dean Samuel Hart died

8798-455: The province of Massachusetts. A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770, and Parliament repealed most of the Townshend duties, except the tax on tea. This temporarily resolved the crisis, and the boycott of British goods largely ceased, with only the more radical patriots such as Samuel Adams continuing to agitate. In June 1772, American patriots, including John Brown , burned

8904-527: The rebels' weapons and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. The Patriots assembled a militia 15,000 strong and laid siege to Boston, occupied by 6500 British soldiers. The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on June 14, 1775. The congress was divided on the best course of action. They authorized formation of the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its commander-in-chief, and produced

9010-445: The resulting constitutions embodied: The radical provisions of Pennsylvania 's constitution lasted 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to

9116-588: The revenue themselves. Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765, which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets were required to have the stamps—even decks of playing cards. The colonists did not object that the taxes were high; they were actually low. They objected to their lack of representation in the Parliament, which gave them no voice concerning legislation that affected them, such as

9222-528: The stamp tax or to send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin appeared before them to make the case for repeal, explaining that the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood defending the empire, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax on February 21, 1766, but they insisted in the Declaratory Act of March 1766 that they retained full power to make laws for

9328-544: The tax, violating the unwritten English constitution . This grievance was summarized in the slogan "No taxation without representation". Shortly following adoption of the Stamp Act, the Sons of Liberty formed, and began using public demonstrations, boycotts, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws became unenforceable. In Boston , the Sons of Liberty burned the records of

9434-686: The terms of its amalgamation with Yale University in 1971, Berkeley agreed not to confer earned degrees, such as the Master of Divinity (M.Div) or Master of Arts in Religion (M.A.R.). However, because it remains an institution chartered with a degree-granting power, it continues to offer honorary degrees , such as the Doctor of Divinity . All students at Berkeley are concurrently students at Yale Divinity School from which they take coursework for their M.Div, M.A.R., or S.T.M. degree. Berkeley offers two courses of study,

9540-535: The unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress issued the Halifax Resolves explicitly authorizing its delegates to vote for independence. By June, nine Provincial Congresses were ready for independence; Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York followed. Richard Henry Lee was instructed by

9646-572: The vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson . Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that the colonists were equal to all other British citizens and that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen , and Congress emphasized their determination by organizing

9752-652: The west and foreign populations in newly acquired territories (the French in Canada and the Spanish in Florida ). In addition, British soldiers could prevent white colonists from instigating conflict with Native Americans and help collect customs duties. Migration beyond the Appalachian Mountains increased after the French threat was removed, and Native Americans launched Pontiac's War (1763–1766) in response. The Grenville ministry issued

9858-643: Was a risk they happily took in the surgical room for the chance to bring some level of peace and normality to their mangled faces or agonized bodies. In France, these kinds of surgeries Mütter specialized in were called Opérations plastiques , later called " Reconstructive surgery ". Performing these surgeries, Mütter administered anesthesia to his patients. He was the first American surgeon to use it on patients. During his life, Mütter collected artifacts relating to surgery, which he used to show his students when teaching. These ranged from illustrations and wax models to actual specimens of human anatomy. The collection formed

9964-680: Was an American surgeon born in Richmond, Virginia . Orphaned at the age of 8 and raised by a distant relative, he attended Hampden-Sydney College in Virginia (1824) and graduated with an MD from the University of Pennsylvania in 1831. Later he eventually took a position as an assistant to Dr. Thomas Harris at the Medical Institute of Jefferson College. At the age of 30, he became the Chair of Surgery at

10070-774: Was born on March 9, 1811, in Richmond, Virginia. He was the first child to John and Lucinda Mütter. His father was a first-generation Scottish immigrant. He ran a business as a factor and commission agent. Lucinda Mütter was connected to some of the most prestigious families in the South of the USA. She married Mütter at the age of fifteen and together they had two children, Thomas in 1811 and James in 1813. James died of illness in 1814 and Lucinda shortly after. John's business and health declined and he eventually left for Europe, leaving Thomas with his maternal grandmother, Frances Gillies. However, John died during

10176-509: Was consecrated by Williams on 16 March 1861. The chapel was designed “in the decorated style of Gothic architecture ,” in collegiate seating with 62 stalls and a five-sided apse . In this early period, the seminary was functionally part of the private household of the Bishop, operating in a similar manner to Cuddesdon College founded by Bishop Samuel Wilberforce in Oxford in the same year. During

10282-490: Was enforced by new local committees authorized by the Congress. It also began coordinating Patriot resistance by militias which existed in every colony and which had gained military experience in the French and Indian War. For the first time, the Patriots were armed and unified against Parliament. King George declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to seize

10388-525: Was exercised by “ Commissaries ” such as the Rev. James Blair . While American ordinands had to travel to England to be ordained, many of them were able to train for the ministry in the Colonies. As Harvard was Congregationalist , Anglican training largely occurred privately or at the College of William & Mary (from 1693) and later also at Yale College (from 1701). In 1754, the Rev. Samuel Johnson founded

10494-401: Was instructed to collect evidence of said treason, and the threat caused widespread outrage, though it was not carried out. On March 5, 1770, a large crowd gathered around a group of British soldiers on a Boston street. The crowd grew threatening, throwing snowballs, rocks, and debris at them. One soldier was clubbed and fell. There was no order to fire, but the soldiers panicked and fired into

10600-471: Was much too slow and became trapped in northern New York state. It surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15, a siege distracted British troops at Fort Mifflin , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge . Thomas Dent Mutter Thomas Dent Mütter (March 9, 1811 – March 19, 1859)

10706-732: Was nominated Professor of Surgery at Jefferson Medical College . Moreover, Mütter was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1851 and Professor Emeritus in 1857. Mütter's collected syllabi were published in 1850, six years before his retirement since he developed chronic gout and tuberculosis-related pulmonary hemorrhages. Mütter's main specialty was to help people who were "deformed", people that were categorized as monsters . Some of these people were born that way, other were born "normal", but their bodies had slowly turned them into "monsters", as tumors laid siege to parts of their bodies. For those patients, death

10812-417: Was succeeded by the brief tenure of The Very Rev. Charles Halsey Clark (1977–1982), and then The Very Rev. James E. Annand (1982–1991), after whom the "Annand Program for Spiritual Formation" is named. After the seven-year tenure of The Very Rev. Philip W. Turner III, Berkeley elected R. William Franklin to the deanship, to date the only lay person to be dean of the seminary (he would later be ordained). Franklin

10918-718: Was the Massachusetts Government Act which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second was the Administration of Justice Act which ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third was the Boston Port Act , which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The fourth

11024-653: Was the Quartering Act of 1774 , which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes of citizens without permission of the owner. In response, Massachusetts patriots issued the Suffolk Resolves and formed an alternative shadow government known as the Provincial Congress, which began training militia outside British-occupied Boston. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened, consisting of representatives from each colony, to serve as

11130-495: Was the subject of some controversy in 2001 when he was alleged to have misappropriated some $ 10,000 in charitable funds. Franklin resigned, and a formal audit verified personal expenditures “not consistent with the dean’s employment agreement.” The incident resulted in some tension between Berkeley and Yale University, which apparently rescinded permission to build a new chapel on the main Divinity School campus. It also resulted in

11236-594: Was written up for being distinguished in scholarship, industry, and behavior. However, during his early studies in college, he began to have attacks of intermittent fever and also developed biliary colic , a chronic condition. This diagnosis led Mütter to decide to study medicine, graduating nearly a decade later. After he attended the Hampden-Sydney College in 1824 and graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, Mütter went to Paris, France , in 1831 to study under

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