60-523: List of Berberis and Mahonia species Berberis ( / ˈ b ɜːr b ər ɪ s / ), commonly known as barberry , is a large genus of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from 1–5 m (3.3–16.4 ft) tall, found throughout temperate and subtropical regions of the world (apart from Australia). Species diversity is greatest in South America and Asia; Europe, Africa and North America have native species as well. The best-known Berberis species
120-482: A bridge from one growing season to another. In other cases the fungus passes between winter wheat and spring wheat, meaning that it has a cereal host all year round. Since the urediniospores are wind dispersed, this can occur over large distances. Note that this cycle consists simply of vegetative propagation – urediniospores infect one wheat plant, leading to the production of more urediniospores that then infect other wheat plants. Puccinia graminis produces all five of
180-450: A federal quarantine was established against the sale of stem rust susceptible barberry in those states that were part of the program. A barberry testing program was created to ensure that only those species and varieties of barberry that are immune to stem rust will be grown in the quarantine area. In 1969 two races not detected before in Australia were found and for decades one hypothesis
240-501: A few other locations in the US, and overall across the US, this race declined 97–98 in favor of other races, and not because of overall Pg decline. As listed by Species Fungorum ; The stem rust fungus attacks the parts of the plant that are above ground. Spores that land on green wheat plants form a pustule that invades the outer layers of the stalk. Infected plants produce fewer tillers and set fewer seed, and in cases of severe infection
300-424: A group of cultivars known to bear that gene. Pgt contains many races of wheat diseases, including some of the most significant in the world. Ug99 began as a race ( TTKSK ) of Pgt and now has proliferated into a large number of races of its own . The virulent new race, against which most current wheat strains show no resistance, was identified in 1999. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99), named after
360-458: A host, John Craigie , a Canadian pathologist, identified the function of the spermogonium in 1927. Due to the useful nature of both barberry and wheat plants, they were eventually brought to North America by European colonists. Barberry was used for many things like making wine and jams from the berries to tool handles from the wood. Ultimately, as they did in Europe, the colonists began to notice
420-610: A new virulent race of stem rust was identified against which most current wheat strains show no resistance. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99 ). An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across Africa , Asia and the Middle East , causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global food security . An outbreak of another virulent race of stem rust, TTTTF, took place in Sicily in 2016, suggesting that
480-428: A receptive hypha of the opposite mating type , leading to the production of a mycelium that is dikaryotic . This is the sexual stage of the life cycle and cross-fertilisation provides an important source of genetic recombination. This dikaryotic mycelium then forms structures called aecia , which produce a type of dikaryotic spores called aeciospores . These have a worty appearance and are formed in chains – unlike
540-497: A relationship between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. Laws were enacted in many New England colonies, but as the farmers moved west, the problem with stem rust moved with them and began to spread to many areas, creating a devastating epidemic in 1916. It was not until two years later in 1918 that the United States created a program to remove barberry. The program was one that was supported by state and federal entities and
600-638: A source of pectin (especially with mixed berries). An extract of barberries is a common flavouring for soft drinks, candies, and sweets. Berberis microphylla and B. darwinii (both known as calafate and michay ) are two species found in Patagonia in Argentina and Chile. Their edible purple fruit are used for jams and infusions. The dried fruit of Berberis vulgaris is used in herbal medicine . The chemical constituents include isoquinolone alkaloids , especially berberine . A full list of phytochemicals
660-530: A strong and broad pattern of convergent evolution around the plant pathogenic lifestyle . Due to its cyclical nature, there is no true 'start point' for this process. Here, the production of urediniospores is arbitrarily chosen as a start point. Urediniospores are formed in structures called uredinia, which are produced by fungal mycelia on the cereal host 1–2 weeks after infection. The urediniospores are dikaryotic (contain two un-fused, haploid nuclei in one cell) and are formed on individual stalks within
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#1733121872217720-445: A wide area. Towards the end of the cereal host's growing season, the mycelia produce structures called telia. Telia produce a type of spore called teliospores . These black, thick-walled spores are dikaryotic . They are the only form in which Puccinia graminis is able to overwinter independently of a host. Each teliospore undergoes karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and meiosis to form four haploid spores called basidiospores . This
780-448: Is heteroecious , requiring two hosts to complete its life cycle – the cereal host and the alternate host . There are many species in Berberis and Mahonia (and their hybrid genus x Mahoberberis ) that are susceptible to stem rust, but the common barberry ( B. vulgaris ) is considered to be the most important alternate host. P. graminis is macrocyclic (exhibits all five of
840-442: Is a member of the phylum Basidiomycota within the kingdom Fungi . The characteristic rust color on stems and leaves is typical of a general stem rust as well as any variation of this type of fungus. Different from most fungi, the rust variations have five spore stages and alternate between two hosts. Wheat is the primary host, and barberry is the alternate host. The rust is sometimes termed "red rust" or "red dust" owing to
900-403: Is an important source of genetic recombination in the life cycle. Basidiospores are thin-walled and colourless. They cannot infect the cereal host, but can infect the alternative host (barberry). They are usually carried to the alternative host by wind. Once basidiospores arrive on a leaf of the alternative host, they germinate to produce a mycelium (which is haploid ) that directly penetrates
960-592: Is caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis , which causes significant disease in cereal crops. Crop species that are affected by the disease include bread wheat , durum wheat , barley and triticale . These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat in North Indian plains was discovered by K.C. Mehta. Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem rust have become available. Fungicides effective against stem rust are available as well. In 1999
1020-471: Is considered by most authorities to be a rejected synonym for Mahonia , yet the Plant List does accept a few species in this genus. This is an old argument not likely to be resolved soon, and certainly not here on Misplaced Pages. Our interest is in assisting readers find the web pages on the appropriate species, despite the dual nomenclature. Below are species accepted by The Plant List as members of one genus or
1080-453: Is derived from within a paraphyletic group of shrubs bearing imparipinnate evergreen leaves, which the paper then divides into three genera: Mahonia , Alloberberis (formerly Mahonia section Horridae ), and Moranothamnus (formerly Berberis claireae ); it confirms that a broadly-circumscribed Berberis (that is, including Mahonia , Alloberberis , and Moranothamnus ) is monophyletic . Berberis species are used as food plants by
1140-753: Is identified. Similarly, in 2014, a Ug99 race called "Digalu" emerged and devastated the Digalu variety in Ethiopia. JRCQC is a race affecting Durum in Ethiopia . Affects barley. Affects barley. Successfully overwintered in Kansas in 1989/90, and in Texas and Kansas in 1990/91, and so was expected to thereafter be a permanent part of the North American Pg population. Further pathogen adaptation, resulting in widening of
1200-954: Is now banned from sale and propagation), and B. vulgaris and green-leaved B. thunbergii in much of the eastern United States. Japanese barberry is considered an invasive plant in 32 US states. It is deer-resistant because of its taste and is favoured as a shelter for ticks capable of transmitting lyme disease. Several species of Berberis are popular garden shrubs, grown for such features as ornamental leaves, yellow flowers, or red or blue-black berries. Numerous cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden use. Low-growing Berberis plants are also commonly planted as pedestrian barriers. Taller-growing species are valued for crime prevention; being dense and viciously spiny, they are effective barriers to burglars. Thus they are often planted below vulnerable windows, and used as hedges. Many species are resistant to predation by deer. Species in cultivation include: The following hybrid selections have gained
1260-728: Is the European barberry, Berberis vulgaris , which is common in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia, and has been widely introduced in North America. Many of the species have spines on the shoots and all along the margins of the leaves. The genus Berberis has dimorphic shoots: long shoots which form the structure of the plant, and short shoots only 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) long. The leaves on long shoots are non- photosynthetic , developed into one to three or more spines 3–30 mm (0.12–1.18 in) long. The bud in
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#17331218722171320-631: The Berberidaceae , found in many countries. Botanists have for many years had no consensus on the classification, some preferring to treat the group as a single genus ( Berberis ), while others opt to separate the two groups into distinct genera. Therefore, many species have two scientific names, one in Berberis , the other in Mahonia , each used by botanists on one side of the debate. A third generic name, Odostemon , can be found in older literature. It
1380-528: The Bill Gates Foundation donated $ 40 million towards research into Ug99, to be spent on critical infrastructure in Africa. Scientists are working on breeding strains of wheat that are resistant to UG99. However, wheat is grown in a broad range of environments. This means that breeding programs would have extensive work remaining to get resistance into regionally adapted germplasms even after resistance
1440-680: The Midwestern United States and Great Plains, and overall was 94% of Pg s on Hordea in 1991. 67% of QCCJ was from barley and 95% of Pg on barley was QCCJ. On wheat, QCCJ was still the most common race but only at 38% of Pg . Continues to threaten barley in the Red River Valley in North Dakota and Minnesota . Higher than normal inoculum production in South Central Oklahoma and the adjacent part of North Texas before
1500-483: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : Berberis vulgaris grows in the wild in much of Europe and West Asia. It produces large crops of edible berries, rich in vitamin C , but with a sharp acid flavour. In Europe for many centuries the berries were used for culinary purposes much as citrus peel is used. Today in Europe they are very infrequently used. The country in which they are used
1560-569: The axil of each thorn-leaf then develops a short shoot with several normal, photosynthetic leaves. These leaves are 1–10 cm (0.39–3.94 in) long, simple, and either entire, or with spiny margins. Only on young seedlings do leaves develop on the long shoots, with the adult foliage style developing after the young plant is 1–2 years old. Many deciduous species, such as Berberis thunbergii and B. vulgaris , are noted for their attractive pink or red autumn colour. In some evergreen species from China, such as B. candidula and B. verruculosa ,
1620-422: The larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the moths barberry carpet moth ( Pareulype berberata ), and mottled pug ( Eupithecia exiguata ). Berberis species can infect wheat with stem rust , a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. Berberis vulgaris (European barberry) and Berberis canadensis (American barberry) serve as alternate host species of the rust fungus responsible,
1680-488: The spore types that are known for rust fungi ). P. graminis can complete its life cycle either with or without barberry (the alternate host). P. g. tritici ' s obligately biotrophic lifestyle involves the dramatic up-regulation of particular gene transcriptions, constituting its biotrophy genomic features. These genomic regions have parallels in other eukaryotic plant pathogens. These parallels – between these independently evolved and unrelated sets of genes – show
1740-506: The spore types that are known for rust fungi . Spores are typically deposited close to the source, but long-distance dispersal is also well documented commonly out to hundreds of kilometres/miles. The following three categories of long-distance dispersal are known to occur: This can occur unassisted (the robust nature of the spores allows them to be carried long distances in the air and then deposited by rain-scrubbing) or assisted (typically on human clothing or infected plant material that
1800-415: The uredinium . They are spiny and brick-red. Urediniospores are the only type of spores in the rust fungus life cycle that are capable of infecting the host on which they are produced, and this is therefore referred to as the 'repeating stage' of the life cycle. It is the spread of urediniospores that allows infection to spread from one cereal plant to another. This phase can rapidly spread the infection over
1860-449: The 1950s," with the last U.S. outbreak in 1962 destroying 5.2% of the crop. Stem rust has been an ongoing problem dating back to Aristotle 's time (384–322 BC). An early ancient practice by the Romans was one where they would sacrifice red animals such as foxes, dogs, and cows to Robigus ( fem. Robigo ), the rust god. They would perform this ritual in the spring during a festival known as
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1920-488: The 1991 season resulted in an epidemic in North Central and northwestern Kansas. Virulent against barley bearing Rpg1 . Down to 26% of Pg s afflicting wheat in the US in 1995, 1% in 1996, and not at all in 1997 or 1998. Not found on barley in 1997 but found again in 1998. The first QCC race (since renamed QCCJ or QCCJB) was detected in the northwest Great Plains in 1988, and by 1990 was over 90% of Pg s on barley in
1980-553: The Robigalia in hopes of the wheat crop being spared from the destruction caused by the rust. Weather records from that time have been reexamined and it has been speculated that the fall of the Roman Empire was due to a string of rainy seasons in which the rust would have been more harsh, resulting in reduced wheat harvests. Laws banning barberry were established in 1660 in Rouen , France. This
2040-555: The US on wheat in 1997 and 1998 – but only in the West across both years. On barley in 1997 but not 1998. 25% of Pg s on wheat in 1991. Traces found growing in northwest Illinois fields, also in 1991. 8% of all Pg s on wheat, barley, and oat in the US in 1997, and 31% in 1998. Displaced the previously dominant TPMK suddenly in 1998. 36% of Pg samples from wheat in 1991 in the United States. Unusually severe in southern Illinois in
2100-409: The United States. Also afflicted wheat until a mass switch away from vulnerable cultivars resulted in complete absence in 1997 or 1998. Barley virulence is temperature-sensitive: from 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) rpg4 and Rpg5 are highly effective, but above 27 °C (81 °F) they are ineffective. Not necessarily distinguishable from QCCJ, used synonymously by some practitioners. Found in
2160-484: The country where it was identified ( Uganda ) and the year of its discovery (1999). It spread to Kenya , then Ethiopia , Sudan and Yemen , and becomes more virulent as it spreads. An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across Africa , Asia and the Middle East , causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global food security . In 2011, after it had spread into southern Africa ,
2220-622: The disease is returning to Europe. Comprehensive genomic analysis of Puccinia graminis , combined with plant pathology and climate data, has pointed out the potential of the re-emergence of stem wheat rust in UK. The fungal ancestors of stem rust have infected grasses for millions of years and wheat crops for as long as they have been grown. According to Jim Peterson, professor of wheat breeding and genetics at Oregon State University , "Stem rust destroyed more than 20% of U.S. wheat crops several times between 1917 and 1935, and losses reached 9% twice in
2280-431: The epidermis and colonises the leaf. Once inside the leaf the mycelium produces specialised infection structures called pycnia. The pycnia produce two types of haploid gametes, the pycniospores and the receptive hyphae. The pycniospores are produced in a sticky honeydew that attracts insects. The insects carry pycniospores from one leaf to another. Splashing raindrops can also spread pycniospores. A pycniospore can fertilise
2340-447: The first week of June, and in west central Indiana , in 1991. TPMK was the worst at 69% of Pg s on wheat in 1997 in the United States – being absent only from the southern Great Plains and the west, but then was down to 10% in 1998. In the upper Great Plains it was already declining – to 26% of samples in 1997, and 12% in 1998. In the most fertile areas of the eastern US it was 96% of Pg s in 1997 but then suddenly fell to 29% in 1998. In
2400-718: The fungus (Puccinia graminis) . For this reason, cultivation of B. vulgaris is prohibited in many areas, and imports to the United States are forbidden. The North American B. canadensis , native to Appalachia and the Midwest United States , was nearly eradicated for this reason, and is now rarely seen extant, with the most remaining occurrences in the Virginia mountains. Some Berberis species have become invasive when planted outside of their native ranges, including B. glaucocarpa and B. darwinii in New Zealand (where it
2460-478: The host range, is expected. Synonymous with QCCJB or known as QCC-2 by some classifications. Most common Pg race in 1991 in the United States , 68% of all Pg samples, and 67% in 1990. Afflicted spring-sown barley in the northern Great Plains in 1990. Was the first barley stem rust to show up in the United States in 1991, in southern Texas in Uvalde . Thought to be responsible for rusting of wild Hordea in
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2520-408: The leaf sheaths, but are also found on stems , leaves , glumes and awns . On leaves they develop mostly on the underside but may penetrate to the upperside. On leaf sheaths and glumes pustules rupture the epidermis, giving a ragged appearance. Towards the end of the growing season black telia are produced. For this reason stem rust is also known as "black rust". The telia are firmly attached to
2580-418: The leaf surface. So important is its role in maintenance of prevalence that since the near extermination of the alternate host from the northern Great Plains in the United States, epidemics in crops have become rare. Like other Puccinia species, P. graminis is an obligate biotroph (it colonizes living plant cells) and has a complex life cycle featuring alternation of generations . The fungus
2640-454: The most is Iran , where they are referred to as zereshk ( زرشک ) in Persian . The berries are common in Persian cuisine in dishes such as pilaf ( zereshk polo ) and as a flavouring for poultry. Because of their sour flavour, they are sometimes cooked with sugar before being added to Persian rice. Iranian markets sell dried zereshk. In Russia and Eastern Europe, it is sometimes used in jams as
2700-421: The other, all alphabetized by specific epithet with links to synonyms in the other genus, if such a synonym exists. World Flora Online which replaced The Plant List (since 2013), only lists species of Berberis and places Mahonia Nutt as a synonym. They list up to 623 species. Stem rust See § Synonyms Stem rust , also known as cereal rust , black rust , red rust or red dust ,
2760-430: The plant may die. Infection can reduce what is an apparently healthy crop about three weeks before harvest into a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grains by harvest. Stem rust of cereals causes yield losses in several ways: Stem rust on wheat is characterized by the presence of uredinia on the plant, which are brick-red, elongated, blister-like pustules that are easily shaken off. They most frequently occur on
2820-493: The plant tissue. The site of infection is a visible symptom of the disease. Pycnia appear on barberry plants in the spring, usually in the upper leaf surfaces. They are often in small clusters and exude pycniospores in a sticky honeydew. Five to ten days later, cup-shaped structures filled with orange-yellow, powdery aeciospores break through the lower leaf surface. The aecial cups are yellow and sometimes elongate to extend up to 5 millimetres ( 13 ⁄ 64 in) from
2880-418: The plant. The fungus grows inside the plant as a dikaryotic mycelium. Within 1–2 weeks the mycelium produces uredinia and the cycle is complete. Since the urediniospores are produced on the cereal host and can infect the cereal host, it is possible for the infection to pass from one year's crop to the next without infecting the alternate host (barberry). For example, infected volunteer wheat plants can serve as
2940-433: The rest of the stages remained unknown. Anton de Bary later conducted experiments to observe the beliefs of European farmers regarding the relationship between the rust and barberry plants, and after connecting the basidiospores of the basidia stage to barberry, he also identified that the aeciospores in the aecia stage reinfect the wheat host. Upon de Bary's discovery of all five spore stages and their need for barberry as
3000-411: The sepals usually coloured like the petals. The fruit is a small berry 5–15 mm (0.20–0.59 in) long, ripening red or dark blue, often with a pink or violet waxy surface bloom; in some species, they may be long and narrow, but are spherical in other species. Some authors regard the compound-leaved species as belonging to a different genus, Mahonia . There are no consistent differences between
3060-432: The spores on the leaf surfaces that range from orange to dark-red in color. Later, the spores change and become dark in color, which gives rise to another common name, "black rust". The North American race nomenclature system was introduced in 1988 by Roelfs and Martens. This nomenclature is a series of letters each of which indicate virulence/avirulence against one resistance gene , as diagnosed by performance against
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#17331218722173120-414: The stem rust. Thirty years later it received its name, Puccinia graminis , by Persoon , and in 1854 brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne discovered the characteristic five-spore stage that is known in some stem rust species. The brothers were also able to make a connection between the red (urediniospore) and black (teliospore) spores as different stages within the life cycle of the same organism, but
3180-409: The stem, root, and bark. The thorns of the barberry shrub have been used to clean ancient gold coins, as they are soft enough that they will not damage the surface but will remove corrosion and debris. The acidic young leaves are sometimes chewed for refreshment by parched hikers. List of Berberis and Mahonia species Berberis and Mahonia are two widespread and common members of
3240-417: The two groups other than the leaf pinnation ( Berberis sensu stricto appear to have simple leaves, but these are in reality compound with a single leaflet; they are termed "unifoliolate"), and many botanists prefer to classify all these plants in the single genus Berberis . However, a recent DNA -based phylogenetic study retains the two separate genera, by clarifying that unifoliolate-leaved Berberis s.s.
3300-536: The undersides of the leaves are brilliant white, a feature valued horticulturally. Some horticultural variants of B. thunbergii have dark red to violet foliage. Such as B. thunbergii f. atropurpurea 'Admiration', and B. thunbergii f. atropurpurea 'Atropurpurea Nana'. The flowers are produced singly or in racemes of up to 20 on a single flower-head. They are yellow or orange, 3–6 mm (0.12–0.24 in) long, sepals are usually six, rarely three or nine and there are six petals in alternating whorls of three,
3360-415: The urediniospores that are spiny and are produced on individual stalks. The chains of aeciospores are surrounded by a bell-like enclosure of fungal cells. The aeciospores are able to germinate on the cereal host but not on the alternative host (they are produced on the alternative host, which is usually barberry). They are carried by wind to the cereal host where they germinate and the germ tubes penetrate into
3420-462: Was an African origin, and in 2018 DNA analysis confirmed that, specifically South African . South Africa itself has an ongoing problem with various stem rust outbreaks which requires better response, including an indigenous breeding for resistance program. There is considerable genetic diversity within the species P. graminis , and several special forms, forma specialis , which vary in host range have been identified. P. graminis
3480-406: Was compiled and published in 2014. The safety of using berberine for any condition is not adequately defined by high-quality clinical research . Its potential for causing adverse effects is high, including untoward interactions with prescription drugs , reducing the intended effect of established therapies. It is particularly unsafe for use in children. Historically, yellow dye was extracted from
3540-524: Was due to the fact that European farmers noticed a correlation between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. The law banned the planting of barberry near wheat fields and was the first of its kind. The parasitic nature of stem rust was discovered in the 1700s. Two Italian scientists, Fontana and Tozzetti , first explained the stem rust fungus in wheat in 1767. Italian scientist Giuseppe Maria Giovene (1753–1837), in his work Lettera al dottor Cosimo Moschettini sulla ruggine , also thoroughly studied
3600-412: Was partly prompted by the threat it posed to food supplies during World War I . The "war against barberries" was waged and called upon the help of citizens through radio and newspaper advertisements, pamphlets, and fair booths asking for help from all in the attempt to rid the barberry bushes of their existence. Later, in 1975–1980, the program was reestablished under state jurisdiction. Once this happened,
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