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60-698: After being burned down by the Romans in 200 B.C., the walls were strengthened in the 5th century under Roman Emperor Theodosius II to protect from Barbarian incursions into the Balkans . They were subsequently rebuilt during the 6th century under the Emperor Justinian I and again in the 13th century under the Despot of Epirus , Michael I Komnenos Doukas , cousin of the Byzantine Emperor . This last phase can be seen as

120-598: A Tome , a long letter, to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople , in which he argued for the two natures, but questioned the legality of the recent condemnation of a certain Eutyches for denying them. At this the party of Dioscorus , Cyril's successor in Alexandria was able to overturn the situation, whereupon Leo asked for a second council, calling that [council in] Ephesus the Robber Council ." During this council, Flavian

180-421: A Monogram formed by red bricks set in a wall of the castle. The castle was under the rule of John Komnenos Asen in the mid-14th century The main entrance, on the north side, is defended by a fortified courtyard and there are three smaller entrances. The fortress of Berat in its present state, even though considerably damaged, remains a magnificent sight. The surface that it encompasses made it possible to house

240-454: A claim made by John Malalas . The rivalry between the two women was posed by some scholars to have been motivated by Eudocia's envy of Pulcheria's power in court. Centuries later, Theophanes the Confessor wrote that Eudocia and the chief minister, the eunuch Chrysaphius , convinced Theodosius to rely less on his sister's influence and more on that of his new wife. This caused Pulcheria in

300-455: A considerable portion of the cities inhabitants. The buildings inside the fortress were built during the 13th century and because of their characteristic architecture are preserved as cultural monuments. The population of the fortress was Christian, and it had about 20 Churches (most built during the 13th century) and only one mosque, for the use of the Turkish garrison (of which there survives only

360-491: A council, thereby allowing Nestorius an opportunity to vindicate himself. However, the Council, teeming with Cyril's allies, condemned Nestorius' position. Nestorians, who were unable to take part in the previous council, held their own council to denounce Cyril. The emperor first tried to find a middle ground but eventually favored Cyril. The title of "Theotokos" was decreed as orthodox. He also deposed Nestorius and banished him to

420-661: A few ruins and the base of the minaret). The churches of the fortress were damaged through years and only some have remained. Berat Castle is depicted on the reverse of the Albanian 10 lekë coin, issued in 1996, 2000 and 2013. 40°42′29″N 19°56′42″E  /  40.708°N 19.945°E  / 40.708; 19.945 This article about a castle in Albania is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Theodosius II Theodosius II ( Ancient Greek : Θεοδόσιος Theodosios ; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450)

480-428: A legitimate marriage. She married Marcian , a tribune and close associate of general Aspar , probably at the general's suggestion. Marcian's origins were of low status in comparison to those of previous emperors: "Marcian was a man of little substance, with no ancient aristocratic or imperial blood. He was Roman, however, and thus the bond of kedeia at once communicated eligibility for basileia ." One condition of

540-511: A man in Christ, and the other rejected the title, based on God being eternal and thus could not be born. Nestorius' compromise, the title Christotokos ("birth-giver of Christ"), was rejected; he was accused of separating Christ's divine and human natures, resulting in "two Christs", in a doctrine later called Nestorianism . Nestorius was strongly opposed by Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria and eventually lost Theodosius's support. At Nestorius's request,

600-450: A monastery in Antioch . Thus, Pulcheria's campaign against Nestorius was successful, but ecclesiastical controversies did not stop there. In 449, Christological debates flared up again. Theodosius summoned another council to Ephesus to resolve the disputes. At this council, Pope Leo I was the primary advocate for Pulcheria's claims of the doctrine, and he "…forcefully intervened, sending

660-585: A monastic tone more so than the previous regime. Sozomen describes the pious ways of Pulcheria and her sisters in his Ecclesiastical History : They all pursue the same mode of life; they are sedulous in their attendance in the house of prayer, and evince great charity towards strangers and the poor…and pass their days and their nights together in singing the praises of God. Rituals within the imperial palace included chanting and reciting passages of sacred scripture and fasting twice per week. The sisters relinquished luxurious jewelry and apparel, which most women of

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720-556: A particular individual. Among ancient and medieval writers, Monophysites had a favorable opinion of Theodosius. In 425, Theodosius founded the University of Constantinople with 31 chairs (15 in Latin and 16 in Greek). Among the subjects were law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and rhetoric. It is likely that his wife Eudocia encouraged him in this matter and was behind

780-601: A second commission that met in Constantinople, assigned to collect all of the general legislations and bring them up to date, was completed; their collection was published as the Codex Theodosianus in 438. The law code of Theodosius II, summarizing edicts promulgated since Constantine, formed a basis for the law code of Emperor Justinian I , the Corpus Juris Civilis , in the following century. Eudocia reached

840-452: A smear campaign against her. Nestorius also tried to remove Pulcheria's image and her altar cloth from the altar, against her wishes. However, Pulcheria and her allies, including Eusebius of Dorylaeum , struck back by launching a campaign against Nestorius. Meanwhile, Cyril had already publicly condemned Nestorius and wrote to the imperial court stating that the doctrine of the "Theotokos" was correct. Theodosius and his advisors decided to hold

900-655: Is assumed that his sister continued to exert an influence on him until his marriage. In June 421, Theodosius married Aelia Eudocia , a woman of Athenian origin. The two had a daughter named Licinia Eudoxia , another named Flaccilla, and possibly a son called Arcadius. In 423, the Western Emperor Honorius , Theodosius's uncle, died and the primicerius notariorum Joannes was proclaimed emperor. Honorius's sister Galla Placidia and her young son Valentinian , who had earlier fled to Constantinople to escape Honorius's hostility, sought Eastern assistance to claim

960-460: Is assumed to be inconclusive, Antiochus , a eunuch of Persian origin, became a tutor and an influence on Theodosius. He also became praepositus sacri cubiculi later but Theodosius dismissed him when he reached his adulthood. In 414, Theodosius's older sister Pulcheria vowed perpetual virginity along with her sisters. She was proclaimed augusta , and acted as a guardian of her brother. The guardianship ended when he reached his majority, but it

1020-718: The Christian Church and its theological development by being involved in the Council of Ephesus and guiding the Council of Chalcedon , in which the Church ruled on christological issues. The Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church subsequently recognized her as a saint . Pulcheria was born into the Theodosian dynasty , whose Eastern branch in the later Roman Empire ruled from Constantinople . Her parents were

1080-604: The Huns . Early in Theodosius II's reign Romans used internal Hun discord to overcome Uldin 's invasion of the Balkans. The Romans strengthened their fortifications and in 424 agreed to pay 350 pounds of gold to encourage the Huns to remain at peace with the Romans. In 433 with the rise of Attila and Bleda to unify the Huns, the payment was doubled to 700 pounds. Theodosius became engaged with

1140-552: The praetorian prefect Anthemius , under whose supervision the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople were constructed. According to Theophanes the Confessor and Procopius , the Sasanian king Yazdegerd I (399–420) was appointed by Arcadius as the guardian of Theodosius, whom Yazdegerd treated as his own child, sending a tutor to raise him and warning that enmity toward him would be taken as enmity toward Persia. Though this story

1200-472: The Council of Chalcedon "…developed and clarified the creed of Nicaea , according to which God was Father, Son and Holy Spirit, by further proclaiming that Christ was at all times after the Incarnation fully God and fully human." Pulcheria and Marcian were both hailed as the "new Constantine" and "new Helena" at the council. From this council grew an irreconcilable gulf between Chalcedonians , those who upheld

1260-429: The Huns. Anatolius negotiated a peace agreement; the Huns withdrew in exchange for humiliating concessions, including an annual tribute of 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 687 kg) of gold. In 447 the Huns went through the Balkans, destroying among others the city of Serdica ( Sofia ) and reaching Athyra ( Büyükçekmece ) on the outskirts of Constantinople. In 449, an Eastern Roman attempt to assassinate Attila failed, however

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1320-556: The Persian persecution of Christians, and the Eastern empire declared war against the Sassanids (421–422); the war ended in an indecisive stalemate, when the Romans were forced to accept peace as the Huns menaced Constantinople . Peace was arranged in 422 without changes to the status quo . The later wars of Theodosius were generally less successful. The Eastern Empire was plagued by raids by

1380-621: The affairs of the West after installing Valentinian III as his Western counterpart. When Roman Africa fell to the Vandals in 439, both Eastern and Western Emperors sent forces to Sicily , intending to launch an attack on the Vandals at Carthage, but this project failed. Seeing the borders without significant forces, the Huns and Sassanid Persia both attacked and the expeditionary force had to be recalled. During 443 two Roman armies were defeated and destroyed by

1440-516: The capital. Before the reign of Theodosius II , synagogues were treated as private property and protected by the imperial government. Theodosius enacted a law that forbade the construction of synagogues and required the destruction of those in existence. Theodosius also ordered the execution of a group of Jews after strife among Christians emerged in Palestine . Pulcheria was also famous for her philanthropy. She erected many churches and buildings for

1500-406: The council the "robber synod". Theodosius supported the outcome, but it was reversed by the Council of Chalcedon after his death in 450. Theodosius died on 28 July 450 as the result of falling off his horse. On 25 November, his sister Pulcheria married the newly elected emperor Marcian , a domesticus under the influential general Aspar . The eunuch Chrysaphius was executed shortly after by

1560-764: The council's decision, and Miaphysites , who opposed it. Pulcheria devoted the last years of her life to the "Theotokos", and had three churches in Constantinople dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary : the Monastery of the Panagia Hodegetria , the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae , and the Chalkoprateia. Pulcheria died in 453, but the specific day is unknown. She probably died in Constantinople . Her death shocked

1620-550: The duties and customs of imperial office, one source says she handled imperial rescripts for her brother during his minority. Many important events occurred during her time as augusta and her brother's reign as emperor; however, Pulcheria's influence was mostly ecclesiastical. In a letter from Pope Leo I , a contemporary of Pulcheria, he complimented her great piety and despisal of the errors of heretics. Pulcheria and Theodosius potentially held anti-Jewish sentiments , which may have contributed to laws against Jewish worship in

1680-467: The eastern Roman emperor Arcadius and empress Aelia Eudoxia . Pulcheria's older sister, Flaccilla, was born in 397 but probably died young. Her younger siblings were Arcadia (born in 400), the future emperor Theodosius II (born in 401), and Marina (born in 401). Arcadius' reign experienced conflict between his wife and the Archbishop of Constantinople John Chrysostom . Sozomen reports that much of

1740-708: The emperor convened the First Council of Ephesus in 431 to allow Nestorius to contest Cyril's accusations of heresy. The council was divided between the Cyrillians and the Nestorians, with Theodosius ultimately favoring the Cyrillians. The council affirmed the title Theotokos and condemned Nestorius, who returned to his monastery in Syria and was eventually exiled to a remote monastery in Egypt. Constantinopolitan abbot Eutyches reignited

1800-495: The empress for her grandiose style in his sermons, which enraged her and resulted in Chrysostom's immediate deposition. Later in life, Pulcheria returned the relics of John Chrysostom and installed them for the church, in gratitude for his pious life. Eudoxia died in 404, and Arcadius in 408. They left behind four young children, including Theodosius II , then 7 years of age, who had been his father's nominal co-emperor since 402 and

1860-479: The enormous apple. The emperor was enraged and suspected an affair between Eudocia and Paulinus; he had his lifelong friend Paulinus executed, and Eudocia asked to be exiled to Jerusalem. A separation ultimately occurred between the imperial couple around 443, with Eudocia's establishment in Jerusalem where she favored monastic Monophysitism . The situation between the Romans and the Sassanids deteriorated in 420 due to

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1920-514: The establishment of the university; she had been born in Athens, where the Neoplatonic School of Athens was the last great center for pagan, classical learning. Eudocia was known for her great intellect. In 429, Theodosius appointed a commission to collect all of the laws since the reign of Constantine I , and create a fully formalized system of law. This plan was left unfinished, but the work of

1980-495: The height of her influence with the emperor from 439 to 441, a period in which the emperor's sister Pulcheria was sidelined in favor of his wife. Eudocia's power was undone by a certain Phrygian apple in a story conveyed by the sixth-century historian John Malalas of Antioch. Malalas wrote that one day, the emperor was on his way to church when a man presented the emperor with an "apple huge beyond any exaggeration." The emperor thanked

2040-405: The imperial court wore. Pulcheria provided many instructions necessary for Theodosius to be a successful emperor when he would come of age. According to Sozomen, Pulcheria's training of Theodosius included good deportment, horsemanship, and how to don clothes. However, as adult, Theodosius was accused by some people of providing lackluster leadership. Not only did Pulcheria train her brother in

2100-424: The interregnum is unclear. It is speculated by some historians that Pulcheria reigned over the empire alone for about one month after the death of Theodosius, which may have primarily consisted of arranging the public funeral of Theodosius. As the deceased emperor lacked surviving male children, Pulcheria could bestow dynastic legitimacy on an outsider by marrying him. She honoured her vow of virginity despite entering

2160-655: The late 440s to leave the imperial palace and live in "… Hebdomon , a seaport seven miles from Constantinople." However, the chronology of her departure does not support Theophanes' narrative. The rivalry of Eudocia and Pulcheria may have come to a head when Eudocia departed for the Holy Land and, for a time, openly supported monastic Miaphysitism . Nonetheless, the sources do not speak of any dispute between them in this period. While hunting on horseback in 450, Theodosius II fell from his horse and injured his spine; he died two days later. What exactly happened in government during

2220-505: The man with 150 solidi , and promptly sent the apple to his wife as a present. Eudocia decided to give the apple to Paulinus, a friend of both her and the emperor. Paulinus, unknowing of where Eudocia had gotten the apple, thought it was fit for only the emperor, and gave it to him. Theodosius was suspicious, and asked Eudocia what she had done with the apple. "I ate it," she replied, and then Theodosius asked her to confirm her answer with an oath, which she did. Theodosius then presented her with

2280-578: The marriage was that Marcian obey and respect Pulcheria's vow of virginity, which he did. In order for the marriage to not seem scandalous to the Roman state, the church proclaimed that "Christ himself sponsored the union and it therefore should not provoke shock or unjustified suspicions." After their marriage, Pulcheria and Marcian had Chrysaphius killed. The First Council of Ephesus , held in 431 in Theodosius's reign, involved two rival bishops: Nestorius , who

2340-677: The new imperial couple. Like Constantine I and several of his successors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles , in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII in the De Ceremoniis . Saint Right-Believing Theodosius II the Younger is commemorated in Eastern Orthodox Church on 29 July. Pulcheria Aelia Pulcheria ( / ˈ iː l i ə p ʌ l ˈ k ɪ r i ə / ; Ancient Greek : Πουλχερία ; 19 January 398 or 399 – 453)

2400-593: The people of Constantinople, since she had formed a bond with the city's inhabitants. Even in her last days Pulcheria thought of ways to help the poor of Constantinople, for "in her will she reinforced that bond by instructing that all of her remaining wealth be distributed among the poor…" After her death, she was declared a saint by the church, which is today the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Pulcheria brought many holy relics to churches in Constantinople. The Trier Adventus Ivory , now housed in

2460-551: The poor in and around Constantinople. Pulcheria's building projects in Constantinople were so vast that a whole district was named the Pulcherianai . As well as contributing new churches and districts to the city, Pulcheria contributed significantly to the Christian Church by reinstating bishops who were dismissed and returning the remains of others, such as Flavian , as relics of the church. Pulcheria's time as Augusta also

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2520-417: The priests, and all the subjects of the Roman empire as witnesses ... It is possible that Pulcheria may have had another motive to remain unmarried, as she would have had to relinquish her power to a potential husband. In addition, the husbands of Pulcheria and her sisters could have wielded overbearing influence on their young brother, or even posed a threat to him. Increasingly, the imperial palace assumed

2580-538: The relations between the two did not deteriorate further. Theodosius frequently attempted to resolve doctrinal controversies regarding the nature of Christ . During a visit to Syria , Theodosius met the monk Nestorius , a renowned preacher. Nestorius was appointed as archbishop of Constantinople in 428 and became involved in a Christology dispute between two groups. One group called the Virgin Mary Theotokos ("birth-giver of God"), based on God being born

2640-464: The rivalry was based on a silver statue of Eudoxia set up outside the cathedral of Constantinople , Hagia Sophia , which Chrysostom condemned: "The silver statue of the empress … was placed upon a column of porphyry ; and the event was celebrated by loud acclamations, dancing, games, and other manifestations of public rejoicing … John declared that these proceedings reflected dishonor on the [C]hurch." Also according to Sozomen, Chrysostom had condemned

2700-472: The theological dispute almost twenty years later by asserting the Monophysite view that Christ's divine and human nature were one. Eutyches was condemned by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople but supported by the powerful Dioscurus of Alexandria , Cyril's successor. The Second Council of Ephesus in 449 restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian. The Chalcedonians opposed the decision, with Pope Leo I calling

2760-487: The throne for Valentinian, and after some deliberation in 424 Theodosius opened the war against Joannes. On 23 October 425, Valentinian III was installed as emperor of the West with the assistance of the magister officiorum Helion , with his mother taking an influential role. To strengthen the ties between the two parts of the empire, Theodosius's daughter Licinia Eudoxia was betrothed to Valentinian. She married Valentinian III later on 29 October 437, and became empress of

2820-514: The treasury of Trier Cathedral , Germany, has been interpreted as depicting the installation of one of these relics. Historian Kenneth Holum describes the Ivory thus: "On the Ivory Theodosius wears distinctive costume and inclines slightly forward, but essentially he remains only part of the cortege and thus of the ceremonial context. The direction of the wagon's movement inexorably toward the scene at

2880-400: The western portion of the empire. Theodosius is often seen by both ancient and modern historians as being constantly pushed around by his sister, wife, and eunuchs, particularly Chrysaphius among them. In the later decades of his life, Chrysaphius rose to prominence as one of the emperor's favorites. He favored the pro-Monophysite policy, influenced the foreign policy towards the Huns , and

2940-476: Was Archbishop of Constantinople , and Cyril , the Patriarch of Alexandria . The dispute grew from their disagreement over the nature of Christ. Nestorius advocated diminishing the influence of the doctrine of the " Theotokos ", i.e. "Mother of God", in the church. This conflicted with the religious beliefs of Pulcheria, as she was a virgin empress, and a rivalry between them ensued, during which Nestorius launched

3000-502: Was Roman emperor from 408 to 450. He was proclaimed Augustus as an infant and ruled as the Eastern Empire 's sole emperor after the death of his father, Arcadius , in 408. His reign was marked by the promulgation of the Theodosian law code and the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople . He also presided over the outbreak of two great Christological controversies, Nestorianism and Eutychianism . Theodosius

3060-472: Was able to conquer through his sisters' vows of virginity. Theodosius thus made his sister's virginity a tool of war propaganda, and because of her vow to be faithful only to God, the hand of God would help Roman troops in battle against Persia. The relationship between Pulcheria and Aelia Eudocia , Theodosius II's wife, was strained. The two women over the years had developed a rivalry, possibly based on their different backgrounds and religious beliefs. Eudocia

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3120-478: Was also proclaimed Augusta . Through her religious devotion and involvement in the contemporary ecclesiastical scene, Pulcheria had significant, though changing, influence and political power during her brother's reign. After Theodosius II died on 26 July 450, Pulcheria married Marcian on 25 November 450, while simultaneously not violating her vow of virginity. She died three years later, in July 453. Pulcheria influenced

3180-403: Was an Eastern Roman empress who advised her brother, the emperor Theodosius II , during his minority and then became wife to emperor Marcian from November 450 to her death in 453. She was the second (and oldest surviving) child of Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and Empress Aelia Eudoxia . In 414, the fifteen-year old Pulcheria became the guardian of her younger brother Theodosius II and

3240-503: Was beaten and died from his injuries. He was later declared a saint and martyr . Two years later, Pulcheria and Marcian summoned the Council of Chalcedon , attended by 452 bishops. It condemned the doctrines of both Nestorius and Eutyches, developed the doctrines of Cyril and Pope Leo I into one, and it declared the doctrine of the "Theotokos" orthodox. It also reversed the decision of the second Council of Ephesus and denounced it as 'Robber Council'. According to historian Averil Cameron ,

3300-472: Was born on 10 April 401 as the only son of Emperor Arcadius and his wife Aelia Eudoxia . On 10 January 402, at the age of 9 months, he was proclaimed co-a ugustus by his father, thus becoming the youngest to bear the imperial title up to that point . On 1 May 408, his father died and the seven-year-old boy became emperor of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire. The government was at first administered by

3360-607: Was highly esteemed at court. In the Byzantine Senate a bust of her was erected, along with those of other augusti . Pulcheria was a deo coronata and possessed basileia . When she took the vow of virginity in 414, her sisters followed her example. This was to deter potential suitors. Sozomen explains that: She devoted her virginity to God, and instructed her sisters to do likewise. To avoid cause of scandal and opportunities for intrigue, she permitted no man to enter her palace. In confirmation of her resolution she took God,

3420-414: Was marked by war and ongoing conflict with Sassanid Persia . The imperial court called for war against Persia when the Persian king Yazdegerd I executed a Christian bishop who had destroyed a Zoroastrian altar. Theodosius sent troops into battle, described by Socrates as "ready to do anything for the sake of Christianity." Though the war was inconclusive, a surviving inscription declares that Theodosius

3480-478: Was now sole emperor. The praetorian prefect Anthemius at first led government affairs. The imperial chamberlain Antiochus educated Theodosius, but upon reaching adulthood the emperor dismissed him from office. On 4 July 414, Pulcheria took a vow of virginity and was proclaimed Augusta . From then on until Theodosius' adulthood, Pulcheria began to act as her brother and his government's guardian. Pulcheria

3540-464: Was originally named Athenais and was born in Athens to a Greek philosopher and professor of rhetoric. When her father died, he left her with little means, only "one hundred gold coins". She visited her aunt in Constantinople out of desperation. On 7 June 421, Theodosius married Athenais, and her name was changed to Eudocia . Opinions differ as to whether Pulcheria really recommended Eudocia to her brother,

3600-444: Was resented by Pulcheria, general Zeno , and ancient writers. According to Theodorus Lector , Theodosius was so unmindful of his surroundings that he accidentally signed his sister's note selling his wife, Eudocia, into slavery. However, some scholars argue that contrary to hostile ancient sources, Theodosius was more in control of his government. Others view that the government was controlled mostly by civilian officials, and not by

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