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62-839: Raisio Group licenses the Benecol brand and sells the ingredient stanol ester to food companies around the world. The brand is licensed in more than 30 countries by local food companies such as Kaiku in Spain , Colanta in Colombia , Lotte in South Korea , Kalbe Nutritionals in Indonesia and Johnson & Johnson in the US . The European Commission approved the following statement regarding Benecol products: "Plant stanol esters have been shown to lower/reduce blood cholesterol . Blood cholesterol lowering may reduce

124-724: A blood bank . There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system , and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused. Other blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates. Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy ) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by

186-574: A blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion. In modern evidence-based medicine , bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia . However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine. English blood ( Old English blod ) derives from Germanic and has cognates with

248-446: A consequence of the reduced absorption of cholesterol, the absorption of fat-soluble components other than cholesterol, such as vitamins and antioxidants , may also be reduced. Like cholesterol, carotenoids and tocopherols are transported by lipoproteins . Since the number of LDL particles in circulation decreases after consumption of plant sterols or stanols, plasma concentrations of carotenoids and tocopherols also decrease. This

310-403: A daily intake of plant stanol esters equivalent to 1.5–2.4 g of plant stanols in an appropriate food. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recognizes the role of plant stanols in lowering blood total and LDL cholesterol, and has authorized a “Health Claim Meeting Significant Scientific Agreement (SSA)” for use on certain foods to which plant stanols have been added. The following

372-415: A much lesser degree than prescription drugs such as statins . The starting material is phytosterols from plants. These are first hydrogenated to give a plant stanol which is then esterified with a mixture of fatty acids also derived from plants. Plant stanol esters are found naturally occurring in small quantities in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, cereals, legumes, and vegetable oils. Stanol ester

434-426: A pH below 7.35 is too acidic , whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic. A pH below 6.9 or above 7.8 is usually lethal. Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO 2 ) , partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO 2 ) , and bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms , which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system to control

496-401: A saturated subgroup of sterols. Plant stanols are present in small amounts in human diet. Their main sources are whole-grain foods, mostly wheat and rye . The daily intake of stanols in the average western diet is about 60 mg/d, whereas the intake of plant sterols is about 150–300 mg/d and that of cholesterol is 500–800 mg/d. The relatively low natural levels of stanols in

558-537: A similar range of meanings in all other Germanic languages (e.g. German Blut , Swedish blod , Gothic blōþ ). There is no accepted Indo-European etymology. Robin Fåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate ) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism , wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon

620-423: Is blood plasma , a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins , and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose , amino acids , and fatty acids (dissolved in

682-933: Is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells , and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma . Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains proteins , glucose , mineral ions , and hormones . The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and (in mammals) platelets (thrombocytes). The most abundant cells are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin , which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to it, increasing its solubility. Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system , based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in

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744-461: Is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO − 3 by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction CO 2 + H 2 O → H 2 CO 3 → H + HCO − 3 ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However,

806-418: Is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be "related by blood" is to be related by ancestry or descendence, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines , and sayings such as " blood is thicker than water " and " bad blood ", as well as " Blood brother ". Blood is given particular emphasis in

868-440: Is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin . In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot use oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue – a symptom called cyanosis . If the heme is oxidized, methemoglobin , which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen,

930-407: Is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart . In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins . It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through

992-480: Is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal. A fetus , receiving oxygen via the placenta , is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen ( hemoglobin F ) to function under these conditions. CO 2 is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it

1054-426: Is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia , arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue. Veins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons. However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex , rather than

1116-436: Is free to bind oxygen, and fewer oxygen molecules can be transported throughout the blood. This can cause suffocation insidiously. A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air. Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco. Blood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in

1178-461: Is in equilibrium with lymph , which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration. Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct , which drains into the left subclavian vein , where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation. Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation . Increasing blood flow to

1240-561: Is known as the Haldane effect , and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. A rise in the partial pressure of CO 2 or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect . Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin. In mammals, blood

1302-564: Is not recommended and Benecol foods may not be appropriate for pregnant or breast feeding women, and children under 5 years old. Two reviews confirm that plant stanol and sterol esters lower cholesterol levels. Benecol foods have been found as a way to reduce cholesterol and they also can help lower cholesterol in people that are taking statins . However, it is important that those already taking cholesterol lowering medication consult with their GP (Primary Care Physician) before embarking on dietary cholesterol programmes. The first Benecol product

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1364-445: Is often added to rapeseed oil-based margarine or other foods for its health benefits. Studies have indicated that consumption of about 2-3 grams per day provides a reduction in LDL cholesterol of about 10-15%. The compound itself passes through the gut , with very little entering the blood stream or lymph . Its presence in the gut, however, reduces both the amount of cholesterol

1426-511: Is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated . Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- , hemato- , haemo- or haemato- from the Greek word αἷμα ( haima ) for "blood". In terms of anatomy and histology , blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue , given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen . Blood performs many important functions within

1488-488: Is produced predominantly by the liver , while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney . Healthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen , and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids. The kidney actively secretes waste products into

1550-435: Is required, plant stanol esters are typically refrigerated in solid form. Furthermore, the usual antioxidants can be added to plant stanol ester products as they are to other oils or fats to minimise oxidation. Esterified plant stanols have been proven to reduce cholesterol in a number of randomised, placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trials . However absolutely no effect on clinical endpoints such as CVD or mortality

1612-598: Is substantial evidence to support the cholesterol-lowering effect of phytosterol- and phytostanol-containing products. After rigorous scientific assessment by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), four health claims have been approved for use in the European Union and Great Britain, allowing products to emphasise the proven health benefit. The European Commission has authorised that an LDL-cholesterol lowering effect of 7–10% can be achieved in 2–3 weeks by

1674-470: Is the FDA model health claim, to which certain designated optional modifications may be made: “Foods containing at least 0.5g per serving of plant stanols eaten with meals or snacks for a daily total intake of 2g as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of Benecol buttery spread supplies 1 g of plant stanols." Consuming more than 3g of plant stanol per day

1736-429: Is why these antioxidants are often standardized to plasma lipid concentrations. The results of randomised, placebo -controlled trials on the effects of plant sterols or stanols on fat-soluble vitamins and antioxidants were summarised in 2003. Significant reductions were only seen in clinical trials for hydrocarbon carotenoids . These reductions are probably caused by reduced absorption and lower plasma concentrations of

1798-529: The acid–base balance and respiration, which is called compensation. An arterial blood gas test measures these. Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive. Human blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell numbers, size, protein structure , and so on, vary somewhat between species. In non-mammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences: Blood

1860-405: The clotting of blood. Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart . In animals with lungs , arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. Blood is bright red when its hemoglobin

1922-456: The enterocytes back into the intestinal lumen . Mutations in these transporter proteins lead to a rare congenital disease called sitosterolaemia, which is characterised by: It was recently shown that polymorphisms in the ABCG5 and ABCG8 genes contribute to modifying serum plant sterol levels in healthy, non-sitosterolaemic individuals. Furthermore, several epidemiological studies have shown that

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1984-428: The erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris . Another example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider , in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs. Hemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood ( hemochrome ). Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters

2046-482: The pulmonary veins . Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells , to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood. Additional return flow may be generated by

2108-479: The urine . About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the hemoglobin . About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species. Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O 2 per gram hemoglobin, which increases

2170-507: The CO 2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO 2 decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels

2232-483: The actual color of the venous blood. Skinks in the genus Prasinohaema have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin . Substances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases, this can cause irreversible damage to the body. Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin

2294-473: The blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide , urea , and lactic acid . Other important components include: The term serum refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed. Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins . Blood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic (compensation). Extra-cellular fluid in blood that has

2356-403: The body absorbs from food and the reabsorption of the cholesterol component of bile . Despite a well documented cholesterol lowering effect, there are no data available indicating that functional foods supplemented with plant sterol esters reduce cardiovascular events. They are used in food products such as Benecol . Sterol esters can also be used for the same purpose. These compounds have

2418-475: The body, including: Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m , very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m . The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 litres (11 US pt) or 1.3 gallons, which is composed of plasma and formed elements . The formed elements are the two types of blood cell or corpuscle – the red blood cells , (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes), and

2480-579: The carrier, LDL. After correcting for cholesterol levels, only the reduction in the β-carotene level remained. It is important, however, that carotenoid and tocopherol levels remained within the normal ranges. Clinical trials also showed that when following the recommended diet, including consumption of vegetables and fruit, carotenoid levels did not decrease. Plasma concentrations of retinol (vitamin A), 25-hydroxyvitamin D and vitamin K are unaffected by dietary plant sterols and stanols. Blood Blood

2542-422: The cell fragments called platelets that are involved in clotting. By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%. Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics . One microliter of blood contains: 45 ± 7 (38–52%) for males 42 ± 5 (37–47%) for females Oxygenated: 98–99% Deoxygenated: 75% About 55% of blood

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2604-509: The diet are too low to have a significant effect on serum cholesterol levels. Following evidence from toxicological studies and numerous clinical trials , stanols are characterised as safe by authorities in several European Union countries and by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Stanol esters are a saturated subgroup of sterol esters. Plant stanol esters in Benecol products are fatty acid esters of plant sterols. The sterol part of

2666-413: The digestive tract. After severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl 2 etc.) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin , or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than

2728-431: The exact color. Arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states. Blood in carbon monoxide poisoning

2790-413: The government body concludes that "there is not enough evidence at the moment that these products prevent cardiovascular disease." Benecol contains plant-based cholesterols, such as plant stanols or sterols . This displaces cholesterol from micelles so less is absorbed in the small intestine . However, plant-based cholesterols get pumped out of enterocyte cells so are not absorbed effectively. There

2852-530: The lungs is still roughly 75% (70 to 78%) saturated. Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions. Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia). Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation less than 90%),

2914-422: The molecule is sitostanol or campestanol while the fatty acid residue originates from different vegetable oils. Plant stanol esters have the following physical properties: These physical properties can be tailored by changing the fatty acid composition. In different technological applications of Benecol products, the fatty acid part is selected so that the melting properties, texture and other characteristics of

2976-407: The movement of skeletal muscles , which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium . The blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628. In vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis , which includes erythropoiesis , the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis ,

3038-464: The observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen. A dark clot forms at the bottom (the "black bile"). Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the "blood"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the "phlegm"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the "yellow bile"). In general, Greek thinkers believed that blood

3100-419: The oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Under normal conditions in adult humans at rest, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98–99% saturated with oxygen , achieving an oxygen delivery between 950 and 1150 ml/min to the body. In a healthy adult at rest, oxygen consumption is approximately 200–250 ml/min, and deoxygenated blood returning to

3162-525: The plant stanol ester closely resemble the properties of the fat it replaces. Under normal storage and food preparation conditions, plant stanol esters are very stable because they are more resistant to oxidation than the commonest vegetable oils . Using plant stanol esters in food applications instead of conventional fats does not decrease the shelf life of the end product. As is the case for all fats and oils, stanol esters should be protected from heat, air and light to prevent oxidation. If long-term storage

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3224-505: The production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs. In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum , is an important source of T lymphocytes . The proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins)

3286-399: The risk of coronary heart disease " but noted that "there are no studies demonstrating that plant stanol esters have an impact on population-based CHD morbidity and mortality rates". The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence of England and Wales similarly found that while "[t]here is evidence that foods containing plant sterols and stanols reduce cholesterol levels",

3348-532: The risk of developing heart disease seems to be increased even at more "normal" plant sterol levels. Since statins were shown to increase serum plant sterol concentrations, patients should probably not be treated with statins alone but with a combination therapy focusing simultaneously on improving the serum lipoprotein profile and lowering serum plant sterol concentrations. The molecular mode of actions of stanols has been described in several preclinical and clinical trials and can be divided into two steps: As

3410-480: The same effect to LDL, but they are partially absorbed by the body. The effects of higher serum plant sterol levels are so far not completely understood. Plant sterols are cholesterol -like molecules found in all plant foods, with the highest concentrations occurring in vegetable oils . Plant sterols are plant equivalents of cholesterol and have a very similar molecular structure. According to their structure, they can be divided into sterols and stanols, stanols being

3472-422: The second and the third most supplied organs, with 1100 ml/min and ~700 ml/min, respectively. Relative rates of blood flow per 100 g of tissue are different, with kidney, adrenal gland and thyroid being the first, second and third most supplied tissues, respectively. The restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are

3534-489: The surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially. Rate of blood flow varies greatly between different organs. Liver has the most abundant blood supply with an approximate flow of 1350 ml/min. Kidney and brain are

3596-443: The total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O 2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen (about 100 mm Hg in arteries). With the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries , where

3658-539: Was a spread that was brought to market in Finland in 1995. Since then, the product line has expanded to fat spreads, yogurts , yogurt drinks, cream cheese style spreads, milk and soy drinks, bread and oatmeal . The availability of different products varies in different countries. Stanol ester Stanol esters is a heterogeneous group of chemical compounds known to reduce the level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in blood when ingested, though to

3720-429: Was demonstrated. Plant stanols reduce both cholesterol and plant sterol levels in serum. This may be of importance since elevated plant sterol concentrations have been identified as an independent risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD). Two ABC transporters (ABCG5 and ABCG8) play an important role in the regulating the intestinal absorption of plant sterols by resecreting previously absorbed plant sterols from

3782-489: Was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner . Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today. In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility. The first non-direct transfusion was performed on 27 March 1914. The Rhesus factor was discovered in 1937. Due to its importance to life, blood

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3844-464: Was made from food. Plato and Aristotle are two important sources of evidence for this view, but it dates back to Homer's Iliad . Plato thinks that fire in our bellies transform food into blood. Plato believes that the movements of air in the body as we exhale and inhale carry the fire as it transforms our food into blood. Aristotle believed that food is concocted into blood in the heart and transformed into our body's matter. The ABO blood group system

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