42-405: The Beira Patrol was a blockade of oil shipments to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe ) through Beira, Mozambique , resulting from United Nations trade sanctions on Rhodesia. Rhodesia's government unilaterally declared the former colony's independence on 11 November 1965, after rejecting British preconditions for independence that involved racial equality and rule by the black majority. Ian Smith ,
84-451: A distant blockade, the blockaders stay well away from the blockaded coast and try to intercept any ships going in or out. This may require more ships on station, but they can usually operate closer to their bases, and are at much less risk from enemy raids. This was almost impossible prior to the 16th century due to the nature of the ships used. A loose blockade is a close blockade where the blockading ships are withdrawn out of sight from
126-435: A blockade is a legal method of warfare at sea but is governed by rules. The manual describes what can never be contraband. The blockading nation is free to select anything else as contraband in a list, which it must publish. The blockading nation typically establishes a blockaded area of water, but any ship can be inspected as soon as it is established that it is attempting to break the blockade. This inspection can occur inside
168-458: A deployment on the Beira Patrol early in 1967. Initially, Royal Navy ships were to shadow and question Beira-bound tankers, and were only allowed to forcibly divert a tanker away after Britain obtained permission from its flag state. However, in the event that permission was granted, British warships were only allowed to demand it change course in the name of its flag state, and fire a shot across
210-730: A part of a war. This changed when France, Russia and Britain came to the aid of the Greek rebels against Turkey . They blockaded the Turkish-occupied coast, which led to the battle of Navarino . War was never declared, however, so it is considered the first pacific — i.e. peaceful — blockade. The first truly pacific blockade , involving no shooting at all, was the British blockade of the Republic of New Granada in 1837, established to compel New Granada to release an imprisoned British consul. Since 1945,
252-485: A result, Rhodesia continued to receive oil shipments. Rhodesia was also able to withstand the blockade by strictly rationing oil. In September 1966, it was estimated that Rhodesia received 220,000 gallons of oil daily, when it needed only 200,000 a day under its rationing policy. The patrol was gradually reduced in several stages. In March 1971, new Prime Minister Edward Heath allowed the Royal Navy to commit one warship at
294-569: A surveillance patrol off Beira. On 6 March, early warning aircraft from Ark Royal began search operations in the Mozambique Channel . The frigate HMS Rhyl and a logistical support ship were soon added. On 28 Feb 1966 HMS Eagle had sailed from Singapore on passage to Beira and remained on station until 10 May 1966 (being relieved by Ark Royal ), returning to Singapore on 10 May 1966. In 71 days Eagle flew 1,070 sorties, flying 600,000 miles, surveying 200,000 square miles daily, steaming
336-683: A time, rather than two. Three months later, the patrol lost its air component when the Malagasy Republic asked the Royal Air Force to eliminate its detachment at Majunga . After an overall drop in the number of frigates in the fleet, the Royal Navy was allowed to make the patrol intermittent. The patrol was finally eliminated on 25 June 1975, when Mozambique gained independence from Portugal and assured Britain that it would not allow transship oil to Rhodesia. The operation had cost more than 100 million pounds , and 76 Royal Navy ships took part in
378-479: A total of 30,000 miles. The patrol lasted until 1975. At any time, two British frigates or destroyers, with the support of land and carrier-based surveillance aircraft and auxiliary vessels, were committed to the patrol. Various British warships cruised the Mozambique Channel 20–45 miles (32–72 km) from Beira and checking on oil tankers heading for the port. As an example of such deployments, HMS Sirius interrupted her passage out to Singapore to carry out
420-607: Is about 1,700 km (900 nmi; 1,100 mi) long and 419 km (226 nmi; 260 mi) across at its narrowest point, and reaches a depth of 3,292 m (10,801 ft) about 230 km (124 nmi; 143 mi) off the coast of Mozambique. A warm current , the Mozambique Current , flows in a southward direction in the channel, leading into the Agulhas Current off the east coast of Southern Africa . The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines
462-400: Is also distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city and the objective may not always be to conquer the area. A blockading power can seek to cut off all maritime transport from and to the blockaded country, although stopping all land transport to and from an area may also be considered a blockade. Blockades restrict
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#1732848480243504-448: Is also referred to as a blockade. When coastal cities or fortresses were besieged from the landward side, the besiegers would often blockade the seaward side as well. Most recently, blockades have sometimes included cutting off electronic communications by jamming radio signals and severing undersea cables . Blockades often result in the starvation of the civilian population, notably during the blockade of Germany during World War I and
546-584: Is now also been done by aircraft, forming airbridges , such as over the Berlin Blockade after World War II . Mozambique Channel The Mozambique Channel ( French : Canal du Mozambique , Malagasy : Lakandranon'i Mozambika , Portuguese : Canal de Moçambique ) is an arm of the Indian Ocean located between the Southeast African countries of Madagascar and Mozambique . The channel
588-458: The Graf Spee, the boarding party proceeded to set about the operation of sinking the tanker. Scuttling charges were placed within the ship, and their timers set, following which the party re-embarked in the motor launch and made their way back to the Graf Spee. With all personnel safely aboard the Graf Spee , Langsdorff and his crew observed the detonation of the charges which blew two holes in
630-652: The United Nations Security Council determines the legal status of blockades and by article 42 of the UN Charter , the council can also apply blockades. The UN Charter allows for the right of self-defense but requires that this must be immediately reported to the Security Council to ensure the maintenance of international peace. According to the not ratified document San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, 12 June 1994,
672-555: The blockade of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War . According to modern international law, blockades are an act of war. When used as a part of an effort to starve the civilian population, they are illegal as part of a war of aggression or when used against a civilian population, instead of a military target. In such case, they are a war crime and potentially a crime against humanity . Although primitive naval blockades had been in use for millennia, they were limited by
714-588: The British to seize the Joanna V upon its departure from Beira if it had discharged its oil cargo there. On 8 April 1967, the frigate Berwick intercepted the tanker Manuella and escorted her away from the Mozambique Channel, but when Berwick broke off for refuelling, Manuella again set course for Beira, but was intercepted by the frigate Puma , which kept the tanker from reaching Beira. The rules of engagement were subsequently liberalised, but use of force
756-526: The Rhodesian Commerce and Industry Minister announced that a tanker with oil for Rhodesia would soon arrive. Following the reports of Rhodesia defying the oil embargo by sea, the British felt pressure to take action and thus prove their commitment to sanctions. On 1 March, the Royal Navy established the Beira Patrol. As many nations had committed themselves to the policy of sanctions, it was required that
798-564: The Rhodesians. A majority of UN member states wanted expanded sanctions and military measures. The British initially attempted to block such initiatives. In October 1965, the Joint Intelligence Committee estimated that even a full trade embargo would fail to cripple Rhodesia's economy due to sanctions evasion enabled by Portuguese Mozambique and South Africa , but suggested that prolonged and severe economic pressure could induce
840-404: The blockaded area or in international waters, but never inside the territorial waters of a neutral nation . A neutral ship must obey a request to stop for inspection from the blockading nation. If the situation so demands, the blockading nation can request that the ship divert to a known place or harbour for inspection. If the ship does not stop, then the ship is subject to capture. If people aboard
882-454: The blockaded coast or port, to ensure the immediate interception of any ship entering or leaving. It is both the most effective and the most difficult form of blockade to implement. Difficulties arise because the blockading ships must remain continuously at sea, exposed to storms and hardship, usually far from any support, and vulnerable to sudden attack from the blockaded side, whose ships may stay safe in harbor until they choose to come out. In
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#1732848480243924-496: The blockading fleet off Brest and extended the blockade to cover the entire French Atlantic coast from Dunkirk to Bordeaux , and also to Marseilles on France's Mediterranean coast. The strategic importance of blockade was shown during the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars , when the Royal Navy successfully blockaded France, leading to major economic disruptions. The Union blockade of southern ports
966-468: The bow if it did not work. The use of force was not authorised, and if the tanker absolutely refused to comply, the shadowing warship could take no more action and only follow it to within Mozambique's six-mile territorial limit. This meant that the tanker would be allowed to proceed unhindered to port. After an incident where the Greek tanker Joanna V was intercepted by HMS Plymouth , but as Plymouth
1008-464: The coast (behind the horizon) but no farther. The object of loose blockade is to lure the enemy into venturing out but to stay close enough to strike. British admiral Horatio Nelson applied a loose blockade at Cádiz in 1805. The Franco-Spanish fleet under Pierre-Charles Villeneuve then came out, resulting in the Battle of Trafalgar . Until 1827, blockades, as part of economic warfare , were always
1050-465: The country's elected prime minister , continued in that role. The United Nations Security Council reacted by passing Resolution 217 , calling for sanctions on Rhodesia. The resolution was later used by the British as legal justification for the blockade. Britain imposed its own national sanctions, including an oil embargo , but ruled out invading Rhodesia. The British were initially opposed to military action, instead relying on UN sanctions to pressure
1092-686: The lighthouse at Cape Zavora , she was spotted by the German Pocket Battleship Admiral Graf Spee , under the command of Captain Hans Langsdorff , and which was embarked upon a commerce raiding sortie . Graf Spee ordered the Africa Shell to stop by the firing of a shot across her bow . Having stopped the Africa Shell, a cutter with a boarding party was despatched from the Graf Spee and subsequently boarded
1134-525: The limits of the Mozambique Channel as follows: On 15 November 1939, under the command of Captain Patrick (Paddy) Dove , the British Coastal Tanker Africa Shell was plying through the Mozambique Channel en-passage from Quelimane to Lourenco Marques sailing in ballast . During the course of the morning, at a point 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) south-southwest from
1176-622: The matter at the UN. On 24 February, the Chiefs of Staff Committee warned that tankers with oil for Rhodesia could arrive in the port of Beira, the terminus of a pipeline going to Rhodesia, unnoticed, and began preparing a maritime surveillance plan for submission to the Prime Minister. Later in February, the British government and world press began focusing on tankers carrying oil for Rhodesia when on 25 February,
1218-430: The nationalities of any tankers carrying oil to Beira should be known. This was the task of aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal and the escort forces HMS Rhyl , HMS Lowestoft and later HMS Plymouth . Stationed off Beira, directing it to prepare for intercept operations starting on 4 March. Consequently, Ark Royal left Mombasa on 1 March 1966 and was ordered to proceed to the Mozambique Channel to commence
1260-469: The operation. A total of 47 oil tankers were intercepted, of which 42 were allowed to proceed. Ships involved in the patrol included: Blockade A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food , supplies , weapons , or communications , and sometimes people, by military force . A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction , which are legal barriers to trade rather than physical barriers. It
1302-556: The rules of engagement were further modified, allowing the use of disabling fire. Britain never managed to obtain UN authority allowing other navies to participate. As well as lacking UN permission, the British judged it outside their capabilities to blockade other Mozambican ports, at the cost of risking relations with Portugal , a fellow member of NATO . South Africa was also capable of transporting oil to Beira by having tankers cruise through South African and then Portuguese territorial waters, providing legal immunity from interception. As
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1344-551: The ship resist capture, they can be lawfully attacked. Whether or not a blockade was seen as lawful depended on the laws of the nations whose trade was influenced by the blockade. The Brazilian blockade of Río de la Plata in 1826 during the Cisplatine War , for instance, was considered lawful according to British law but unlawful according to French and American law. The latter two countries announced they would actively defend their ships against Brazilian blockaders, while Britain
1386-466: The tanker, the officer in charge addressing Captain Dove in perfect English with the sentence: "Good morning, captain. Sorry; fortunes of war." In time, the boarding party ordered the ship's company , save the Africa Shell's Master , into their lifeboats before stripping the Africa Shell of all foodstuffs including a small amount of wine . The crew were ordered to row for shore, however Captain Dove
1428-674: The time ships were able to stay at sea uninterruptedly. The first successful attempts at establishing a full naval blockade were made by the British Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War (1754–1763) against France . Following the British naval victory at Quiberon Bay , which ended any immediate threat of a major invasion of Britain , Britain established a close blockade on the French coast. This starved French ports of commerce, weakening France's economy. Admiral Edward Hawke took command of
1470-411: The trading rights of neutrals, who must submit for inspection for contraband, which the blockading power may define narrowly or broadly, sometimes including food and medicine. In the 20th century, air power has also been used to enhance the effectiveness of blockades by halting air traffic within the blockaded airspace. Close patrol of hostile ports, in order to prevent naval forces from putting to sea,
1512-616: The white electorate to overthrow the government. In early 1966, Prime Minister Harold Wilson made statements that sanctions were working, predicting that the Rhodesian government would soon fall. At the same time, the Foreign Office was feverishly negotiating with the Portuguese Government to participate in the sanctions, which would effectively impose a total blockade on Rhodesia. By the end of 1966, when it became clear that Portugal
1554-813: Was a major factor in the American Civil War . During World War I , the Allies blockaded the Central Powers , depriving them of food and other strategic materials. Germany's attempted U-boat blockade caused some shortages in Britain, but ultimately failed. This outcome was repeated in World War II . Naval strategic thinkers, such as Sir Julian Corbett and Alfred Thayer Mahan , wrote that naval conflicts were won primarily by decisive battles, but also by blockade. A close blockade entails placing warships within sight of
1596-411: Was forced to steer for a peaceful solution between Brazil and Argentina . Blockades depend on four general factors Blockade running is the practice of delivering cargo (food, for example) to a blockaded area. It has mainly been done by ships (called blockade runners ) across ports under naval blockade. Blockade runners were typically the fastest ships available and often lightly armed and armored. It
1638-461: Was limited "to the very minimum", and Defence Ministry approval was required for the diversion of vessels. British warships also had to remain outside of Portugal's territorial waters. After an embarrassing incident involving the French tanker Artois , which ignored a challenge from the frigate Minerva with Minerva firing warning shots before the MoD signalled that Artois was authorised to enter Beira,
1680-477: Was not authorised to use force, the tanker freely sailed into Beira, the British lobbied for UN authority to use force. The UN Security Council subsequently passed Resolution 221 . However, the resolution confined the blockade to Beira and authorised only the Royal Navy to use force. As a result, the Royal Navy alone had to enforce the blockade without assistance, and tankers with oil for Rhodesia could freely dock at other Mozambican ports. The resolution also empowered
1722-500: Was taken prisoner on board the Graf Spee where he was to be held captive. Capt. Dove was incensed by the interception of his ship, and complained personally to Capt. Langsdorff, citing that the Africa Shell was within Portuguese Territorial Waters and that the action was in clear violation of international law . With the crew of the Africa Shell making their way to the shore, and with Capt. Dove transferred to
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1764-428: Was unwilling to cooperate against Rhodesia, the Royal Navy began looking into the possibility of a maritime blockade against Mozambique-bound ships carrying oil destined for Rhodesia. During the first week of February 1966, it became clear that Rhodesia continued to import oil by land from Portuguese Mozambique , and Prime Minister Wilson was warned that black African states could push for more urgent sanctions and raise
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