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62-658: Bau is the capital of the Kubuna Confederacy (Kubuna Tribe) and the chiefly centre of Tailevu Province . It is divided into three villages: Bau , Lasakau and Soso. Significant chiefly titles from Bau include the Vunivalu , who is considered to be Fiji's premier chiefly title, and the Roko Tui Bau . The 13th Vunivalu is Ratu Epenisa Cakobau since 2023, and the Roko Tui Bau is currently held by Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi ,

124-456: A depth of 60 centimetres (2.0 ft). Kava consists of sterile cultivars cloned from its wild ancestor, Piper wichmanii . Today it comprises hundreds of different cultivars grown across the Pacific. Each cultivar has not only different requirements for successful cultivation, but also displays unique characteristics both in terms of its appearance and its psychoactive properties. Scholars make

186-615: A distinction between the so-called noble and non-noble kava. The latter category comprises the so-called tudei (or "two-day") kavas, medicinal kavas, and wild kava ( Piper wichmanii , the ancestor of domesticated Piper methysticum ). Traditionally, only noble kavas have been used for regular consumption, due to their more favourable composition of kavalactones and other compounds that produce more pleasant effects and have lower potential for causing negative side effects, such as nausea, or "kava hangover". The perceived benefits of noble cultivars explain why only these cultivars were spread around

248-453: A fine powder, straining and mixing it with cold water. Traditionally, grog is drunk from the shorn half-shell of a coconut, called a bilo . Grog is very popular in Fiji , especially among young men, and often brings people together for storytelling and socializing. Drinking grog for a few hours brings a numbing and relaxing effect to the drinker; grog also numbs the tongue, and grog drinking typically

310-782: A new Roko Tui Bau , Ratu Serumataidrau, was selected from the Vuaniivi, a Tokatoka Valelevu of the Mataqali and the Yavusa Ratu Vuani-ivi Buca clan, which had settled at Namuka. Naulivou was installed in 1791 as the Vunivalu (in modern Fiji this is now the highest chiefly title in the Kingdom of Kubuna, but was not so in Fiji's early history) after the death of his father Banuve who had three sons: Naulivou, Tanoa II and Celua in 1791. Ratu Raiwalui of

372-478: A ritual presentation of the bundled roots as a sevusevu (gift) and drinking of the yaqona itself. Due to the importance of kava in religious rituals and the seemingly (from the Western point of view) unhygienic preparation method, its consumption was discouraged or even banned by Christian missionaries. With kava's increasing popularity, bars serving the plant in its liquid state are beginning to open up outside of

434-516: A similar mildly psychoactive bitter drink in Austronesian rituals. Cognates for *kava include Pohnpeian sa-kau ; Tongan , Niue , Rapa Nui , Tuamotuan , and Rarotongan kava ; Samoan , Tahitian , and Marquesan ʻava ; and Hawaiian ʻawa . In some languages, most notably Māori kawa , the cognates have come to mean "bitter", "sour", or "acrid" to the taste. In the Cook Islands ,

496-456: A state of calmness, relaxation, and well-being without diminishing cognitive performance. Kava may produce an initial talkative period, followed by muscle relaxation and eventual sleepiness. As noted in one of the earliest Western publications on kava (1886): "A well prepared Kava potion drunk in small quantities produces only pleasant changes in behavior. It is therefore a slightly stimulating drink which helps relieve great fatigue. It relaxes

558-544: A strong kava drink is normally followed by a hot meal or tea. The meal traditionally follows some time after the drink so that the psychoactives are absorbed into the bloodstream more quickly. Traditionally, no flavoring is added. In Papua New Guinea, the locals in Madang province refer to their kava as waild koniak ("wild cognac" in English). Fijians commonly share a drink called grog , made by pounding sun-dried kava root into

620-414: A toxic alkaloid (not present in the consumable parts of the plant ), pipermethystine . Alkaloids are present in the roots and leaves. The following pharmacological actions have been reported for kava and/or its major active constituents: Receptor binding assays with botanical extracts have revealed direct interactions of leaf extracts of kava (which appear to be more active than root extracts) with

682-619: Is a crop of the Pacific Islands . The name kava is from Tongan and Marquesan , meaning 'bitter'; other names for kava include ʻawa ( Hawaiʻi ), ʻava ( Samoa ), yaqona or yagona ( Fiji ), sakau ( Pohnpei ), seka ( Kosrae ), and malok or malogu (parts of Vanuatu ). Kava is consumed for its sedating effects throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia , including Hawaii and Vanuatu , Melanesia , some parts of Micronesia , such as Pohnpei and Kosrae , and

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744-458: Is followed by a "chaser" or sweet or spicy snack to follow a bilo . Water extraction is the traditional method for preparation of the plant. Pharmaceutical and herbal supplement companies extract kavalactones from the kava plant using solvents such as supercritical carbon dioxide , acetone , and ethanol to produce pills standardized with between 30% and 90% kavalactones. Numerous scholars and regulatory bodies have raised concerns over

806-407: Is generally detectable for up to 48 hours. Kava is consumed in various ways throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia , Vanuatu , Melanesia , and some parts of Micronesia and Australia . Traditionally, it is prepared by either chewing, grinding, or pounding the roots of the kava plant. Grinding is done by hand against a cone-shaped block of dead coral ; the hand forms a mortar and

868-463: Is greatest in the roots and decreases higher up the plant into the stems and leaves. Relative concentrations of 15%, 10%, and 5% have been observed in the root, stump, and basal stems, respectively. The relative content of kavalactones depends not only on plant segment but also on the kava plant variety, plant maturity, geographic location, and time of harvest. The kavalactones present are kavain , demethoxyyangonin , and yangonin , which are higher in

930-531: Is made of lateral roots only. A total of 18 different kavalactones (or kavapyrones) have been identified to date, at least 15 of which are active. However, six of them, including kavain , dihydrokavain , methysticin , dihydromethysticin , yangonin , and desmethoxyyangonin , have been determined to be responsible for about 96% of the plant's pharmacological activity. Some minor constituents, including three chalcones — flavokavain A , flavokavain B , and flavokavain C — have also been identified, as well as

992-559: Is seen as a symbol of death, corresponding to the rangiora ( Brachyglottis repanda ), which is the symbol of life. However, kawakawa has no psychoactive properties. Its connection to kava is linked to its similarity in appearance and bitter taste. Kava was historically grown only in the Pacific islands of Hawaii , Federated States of Micronesia , Vanuatu , Fiji , the Samoas , and Tonga . An inventory of P. methysticum distribution showed it

1054-437: Is strictly regulated. Only cultivars classified as noble are allowed to be exported. Only the most desirable cultivars for everyday drinking are classified as noble to maintain quality control. In addition, their laws mandate that exported kava must be at least five years old and farmed organically. Their most popular noble cultivars are "Borogu" or "Borongoru" from Pentecost Island , "Melomelo" from Aoba Island (called Sese in

1116-506: Is the main village on Bau Island , Fiji . Once integral to the power and economy of the chiefly village, the villages of Lasakau (traditional fishermen) and Soso (traditional carpenters) are also located on the twenty-two acre island which became the centre of traditional power throughout the Fiji Islands in the nineteenth century. Because of its historic significance, in 1968 the Leader of

1178-530: The GABA (i.e., main) binding site of the GABA A receptor, the D 2 receptor , the μ- and δ-opioid receptors , and the H 1 and H 2 receptors . Weak interaction with the 5-HT 6 and 5-HT 7 receptors and the benzodiazepine site of the GABA A receptor was also observed. Potentiation of GABA A receptor activity may underlie the anxiolytic effects of kava, while elevation of dopamine levels in

1240-561: The Great Council of Chiefs took place there on May 24, 2023. National champion Ratu Banuve Tabakaucoro received the honour in welcoming the state president and prime minister with the ceremonial offering of kava . [REDACTED] Media related to Bau Island at Wikimedia Commons 17°58′21.22″S 178°36′55.35″E  /  17.9725611°S 178.6153750°E  / -17.9725611; 178.6153750 Bau (village) Bau ( Fijian pronunciation: [ᵐbɔu̯] )

1302-478: The Moʻi variety, which had a strong cerebral effect due to a predominant amount of the kavalactone kavain. This sacred variety was so important to them that no one but royalty could ever experience it, "lest they suffer an untimely death". The reverence for Hiwa in old Hawaiʻi is evident in this portion of a chant recorded by Nathaniel Bright Emerson and quoted by E. S. Craighill and Elizabeth Green Handy: "This refers to

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1364-506: The Philippines . The root of the plant is used to produce a drink with sedative , anesthetic , and euphoriant properties. Its active ingredients are called kavalactones . A 2003 systematic review concluded it had a small effect for treating short-term anxiety . Moderate consumption of kava in its traditional form, i.e., as a water-based suspension of kava roots, has been deemed to present an "acceptably low level of health risk" by

1426-559: The Roko Tui Bau Vuaniivi Clan, Yavusa-Ratu, became the sixth Roko Tui Bau Vuani-Ivi which was the highest chiefly title in the greater area of Kubuna and the second Roko Tui Bau Vuani-Ivi that occupied the Island Delainakorolevu or Ulunivuaka, which was then called Bau in 1760 which was named by the fifth Roko Tui Bau Vuani-ivi Ratu Lele who was then buried at Delai Daku. The relationship between these two men

1488-576: The Vunivalu and Governor General Ratu Sir George Cakobau a rare and exclusive honour of the Royal Victorian Chain displaying her affection for the high chief of Bau and for the people of Fiji. The village is the traditional home of the Vunivalu Tui Kaba - the paramount chief of the traditional Kubuna Confederacy and the Roko Tui Bau of the Vusaratu clan. Other clans of Bau village are

1550-530: The Vusaradave (traditional warriors), Tunitoga (Vunivalu's heralds) and Masau (Roko Tui Bau's heralds). The Vunivalu's residence named Mataiweilagi is situated on the south east shore front of the village. Other chiefly residences that remain in the village are Naicobocobo , Naisogolaca , Muaidule , Nadamele , and 'Qaranikula'. The district school, the Methodist Division missionary's residence and

1612-505: The World Health Organization . However, consumption of kava extracts produced with organic solvents , or excessive amounts of poor-quality kava products, may be linked to an increased risk of adverse health outcomes, including potential liver injury . Kava is conspecific with Piper wichmannii, indicating Kava was domesticated from Piper wichmannii (syn. Piper subbullatum ). Kava originated in Fiji and spread through

1674-541: The 1850s Bau dominated western Fiji. Cakobau's main rival was the Tongan chief Enele Ma'afu , who led an army of Christian Tongans and their allies from eastern Fiji. After a short-lived alliance with Ma’afu, Cakobau became a Christian in 1854. The Bauan people quickly established themselves as an undefeatable military force. With that unmatched power, Seru Epenisa Cakobau was able to unite all of Fiji's disparate tribes under his authority in 1871. The reconstitution ceremony of

1736-650: The Hiwa variety, was offered to hula deities in return for knowledge and inspiration. More recently, specialized kava varieties have been introduced to South Florida which have been acclimated and adapted to grow well in South Florida's unique soil and climate and have significant resistance to pest and disease pressures. As of 2024, cultivation of these varieties is limited to a small number of commercial farms and backyard growers. The Kawakawa ( Piper excelsum ) plant, known also as "Māori kava", may be confused with kava. While

1798-603: The Maori explorers brought some kava with them. Unfortunately, most of New Zealand is simply too cold for growing kava and hence the Maori settlers lost their connection to the sacred plant." Further, "in New Zealand, where the climate is too cold for kava, the Maori gave the name kawa-kawa to another Piperaceae M. excelsum , in memory of the kava plants they undoubtedly brought with them and unsuccessfully attempted to cultivate. The Maori word kawa also means "ceremonial protocol", recalling

1860-736: The Opposition, A. D. Patel proposed setting aside funds to preserve the island. The main historic buildings in the village are the Ratu Seru Cakobau Church, the Vatanitawake temple and the Ulu ni Vuaka meeting house situated around the village green or rara . These buildings were all upgraded for the visit of Queen Elizabeth II in 1982, where she opened the Great Council of Chiefs meeting in Bau village. During her visit, Queen Elizabeth conferred on

1922-1008: The Pacific by Polynesian and Melanesian migrants, with presence of non-noble cultivars limited to the islands of Vanuatu, from which they originated. More recently, it has been suggested that the widespread use of tudei cultivars in the manufacturing of several kava products might have been the key factor contributing to the rare reports of adverse reactions to kava observed among the consumers of kava-based products in Europe. Tudei varieties have traditionally not been grown in Hawaii and Fiji, but in recent years there have been reports of farmers attempting to grow "isa" or "palisi" non-noble cultivars in Hawaii, and of imports of dried tudei kava into Fiji for further re-exporting. The tudei cultivars may be easier and cheaper to grow: while it takes up to 5 years for noble kava to mature, non-noble varieties can often be harvested just one year after being planted. The concerns about

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1984-474: The South Pacific. While some bars have been committed to only serving the traditional forms and types of kava, other establishments have been accused of serving non-traditionally consumed non-noble kava varieties, which are cheaper but far more likely to cause unpleasant effects and adverse reactions, or of serving kava with other substances, including alcohol . The nature of effects will largely depend on

2046-508: The Swedish beachcomber Charlie Savage, who lived there 1808–13, is the most important. 17°58′21.22″S 178°36′55.35″E  /  17.9725611°S 178.6153750°E  / -17.9725611; 178.6153750 This article about a geographical location in Fiji is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Kava Kava or kava kava ( Piper methysticum : Latin 'pepper' and Latinized Greek 'intoxicating')

2108-408: The adverse effects of non-noble varieties, produced by their undesirable composition of kavalactones and high concentrations of potentially harmful compounds ( flavokavains , which are not present in any significant concentration in the noble varieties), have led to legislation prohibiting exports from countries such as Vanuatu. Likewise, efforts have been made to educate non-traditional customers about

2170-415: The chemical solvents' ability to extract far greater amounts of the potentially toxic compounds than water, makes them particularly problematic. In the context of these concerns, the World Health Organization advises against the consumption of ethanolic and acetonic kavalactone extracts, and says that "products should be developed from water-based suspensions of kava". The government of Australia prohibits

2232-555: The chiefly mausoleum is situated on the knoll. The tiny islet of Nailusi sits approximately fifty meters from the north eastern end of Bau off Muaidule . Today, because of the village's growing population and the restrictive dwelling space on the island, many Bauan families live as a community at Taro settlement opposite the island on the Viti Levu coast, next to the main Nausori -Bau road. Many Bauan villagers since Seru Epenisa Cakobau -

2294-409: The coral a pestle . The ground root/bark is combined with only a little water, as the fresh root releases moisture during grinding. Pounding is done in a large stone with a small log. The product is then added to cold water and consumed as quickly as possible. The extract is an emulsion of kavalactone droplets in starch. The taste is slightly pungent, while the distinctive aroma depends on whether it

2356-446: The cultivar of the kava plant and the form of its consumption. Traditionally, only noble kava cultivars have been consumed, as they are accepted as safe and produce desired effects. The specific effects of various noble kavas depend on various factors, such as the cultivar used (and the related specific composition of kavalactones), age of the plant, and method of consumption. However, it can be stated that in general, noble kava produces

2418-507: The cup of sacramental ʻawa brewed from the strong, black ʻawa root (ʻawa hiwa), which was drunk sacramentally by the kumu hula": The day of revealing shall see what it sees: A seeing of facts, a sifting of rumors, An insight won by the black sacred 'awa, A vision like that of a god! Winter describes a hula prayer for inspiration that contains the line, He ʻike pū ʻawa hiwa. Pukui and Elbert translated this as "a knowledge from kava offerings". Winter explains that ʻawa, especially of

2480-448: The difference between noble and non-noble varieties and that non-noble varieties do not offer the same results as noble cultivars. In recent years, government regulatory bodies and non-profit NGOs have been set up with the declared aim of monitoring kava quality; producing regular reports; certifying vendors selling proper, noble kava; and warning customers against products that may contain tudei varieties. In Vanuatu, exportation of kava

2542-565: The former Vice-President of Fiji . The village of Lasakau who are inhabited by the clan Nabou, referred to as Na Bai kei Bau , is ruled by the Komai Nadrukuta . The village of Soso is occupied by the clan Rara, often referred to as the Rara o Soso and is headed by the Tunidau . The Fijian language has many dialects, but the official standard is based on the speech of Bau. It was at Kubuna that

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2604-422: The great ancestral chief , Ratu Vueti Koroi-Ratu mai Bulu, Serui-Ratu mai Bulu, the first Roko Tui Bau Vuani-ivi (according to the legend he was the fourth generation from Ratu Lutunasobasoba) established the Kingdom of Kubuna and formed one of the earliest known Fijian settlements after hostilities ceased the people of Nakauvadra and the victorious Bauan army upon leaving the mountains and finding their way to

2666-513: The kawakawa ( Piper excelsum ), which is endemic to New Zealand and nearby Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island . It was exploited by the Māori based on previous knowledge of the kava, as the latter could not survive in the colder climates of New Zealand. The Māori name for the plant, kawakawa , is derived from the same etymon as kava, but reduplicated . It is a sacred tree among the Māori people . It

2728-401: The large-diameter pieces that look like 1.5 to 5 inches (38 to 127 mm)-diameter wooden poker chips. Most kava plants consist of approximately 80% crown root upon harvesting. Lateral roots are smaller-diameter roots that look more like a typical root. A mature kava plant is about 20% lateral roots. Kava lateral roots have the highest content of kavalactones in the kava plant. "Waka" grade kava

2790-533: The leading Fijian chief who ceded Fiji to the United Kingdom - have played significant roles in Fiji's history. They include Ratu Epeli Nailatikau , Ratu Timoci Tavanavanua , Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi , Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna , Ratu Penaia Kadavulevu , Ratu Popi Seniloli , Ratu Edward Cakobau , Ratu Deve Toganivalu (Snr), Ratu Tiale Vuiyasawa , Ratu Dr. Jione Atonio Rabici Doviverata and Ratu Sir George Cakobau and Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi I . Among white residents,

2852-512: The mountains lest the Bauans should pursue them. The Vuaniivi warriors left some of their war canoes high and dry on the beach at Vuna when they set off for Vanuabalavu. With the aid of Charlie Savage , who brought firearms to Bau, opportunities for new wealth and power, symbolized by the acquisition of muskets, intensified political rivalries and hastened the rise of the Kingdom of Bau, ruled by Naulivou as Vunivalu and then by his nephew Cakobau. By

2914-434: The north Pentecost Island ), and "Palarasul" kava from Espiritu Santo . In Vanuatu, Tudei ("two-day") kava is reserved for special ceremonial occasions and exporting it is not allowed. "Palisi" is a popular Tudei variety. In Hawaii , there are many other cultivars of kava ( Hawaiian : ʻawa ). Some of the most popular cultivars are Mahakea , Moʻi , Hiwa , and Nene . The Aliʻi (kings) of precolonial Hawaii coveted

2976-769: The nucleus accumbens likely underlie the moderately psychotropic effects the plant can produce. Changes in the activity of 5-HT neurons could explain the sleep-inducing action. However, failure of the GABA A receptor inhibitor flumazenil to reverse the anxiolytic effects of kava in mice suggests that benzodiazepine -like effects are not contributing to the pharmacological profile of kava extracts. Heavy, long-term use of kava has been found to be free of association with reduced ability in saccade and cognitive tests , but has been associated with elevated liver enzymes. Recent usage of kava has been documented in forensic investigations by quantitation of kavain in blood specimens. The principal urinary metabolite, conjugated 4'-OH-kavain,

3038-519: The pacific by Polynesian navigation . It was spread by the Austronesian Lapita culture after contact eastward into the rest of Polynesia . It is endemic to Oceania and is not found in other Austronesian groups. Kava reached Hawaii , but it is absent in New Zealand , where it cannot grow. Consumption of kava is also believed to be the reason why betel nut chewing , ubiquitous elsewhere,

3100-399: The reduplicated forms of kawakawa or kavakava are also applied to the unrelated members of the genus Pittosporum . In other languages, such as Futunan , compound terms like kavakava atua refer to other species belonging to the genus Piper . The reduplication of the base form is indicative of falsehood or likeness, in the sense of "false kava". In New Zealand , it was applied to

3162-449: The roots than in the stems and leaves, with dihydrokavain , methysticin , and dihydromethysticin also present. The mature roots of the kava plant are harvested after a minimum of four years (at least five years, ideally) for peak kavalactone content. Most kava plants produce around 50 kg (110 lb) of root when they are harvested. Kava root is classified into two categories: crown root (or chips) and lateral root. Crown roots are

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3224-579: The safety profile of such products. One group of scholars say that organic solvents introduce compounds that may affect the liver into the standardized product; these compounds are not extracted by water and are consequently largely absent from kava prepared with water. For instance, when compared with water extraction, organic solvents extract vastly larger amounts of flavokavains, compounds associated with adverse reactions to kava that are present in very low concentrations in noble kava, but significant in non-noble. Also, "chemical solvents used do not extract

3286-473: The sales of such kavalactone extracts, and only permits the sale of kava products in their natural form or produced with cold water. Kava is used for medicinal, religious, political, cultural, and social purposes throughout the Pacific. These cultures have a great respect for the plant and place a high importance on it. In Fiji, for example, a formal yaqona (kava) ceremony will often accompany important social, political, or religious functions, usually involving

3348-451: The same compounds as the natural water extracts in traditional use. The extraction process may exclude important modifying constituents soluble only in water". In particular, it has been noted that, unlike traditional water-based preparations, products obtained with the use of organic solvents do not contain glutathione , an important liver-protecting compound. Another group of researchers noted: "The extraction process (aqueous vs. acetone in

3410-571: The sea made a Cairn named Ulunivuaka and later called it Bau in honour of Ratu Vueti and his achievements. It was named after a shrine in the Nakauvadra range. He took the titles of Roko Tui Bau Vuani-ivi and Koroi Ratu Maibulu . After his death, he was buried in Kubuna. After his death, a division arose between Bucaira and Vunibuca over the installation of a successor to Ratu Vueti . Other clans went to Namuka and wandered from place to place. Eventually,

3472-497: The stylized consumption of the drug typical of Polynesian societies". Kawakawa is commonly used in Maori traditional medicine for the treatment of skin infections, wounds, and cuts, and (when prepared as a tea) for stomach upsets and other minor illnesses. Fresh kava root contains on average 80% water . Dried root contains approximately 43% starch , 20% dietary fiber , 15% kavalactones , 12% water, 3.2% sugars , 3.6% protein , and 3.2% minerals . In general, kavalactone content

3534-585: The two plants look similar and have similar names, they are different, but related, species. Kawakawa is a small tree endemic to New Zealand, having importance to traditional medicine and Māori culture . As noted by the Kava Society of New Zealand, "in all likelihood, the kava plant was known to the first settlers of Aotearoa [New Zealand]. It is also possible that (just like the Polynesian migrants that settled in Hawaii)

3596-482: The two types of preparations) is responsible for the difference in toxicity as extraction of glutathione in addition to the kava lactones is important to provide protection against hepatotoxicity". It has also been argued that kavalactone extracts have often been made from low-quality plant material, including the toxic aerial parts of the plant that contain the hepatotoxic alkaloid Pipermethystine , non-noble kava varieties, or plants affected by mold — which, in light of

3658-525: Was cultivated on numerous islands of Micronesia , Melanesia , Polynesia , and Hawaii , whereas specimens of P. wichmannii were all from Papua New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , and Vanuatu. Traditionally, plants are harvested around four years of age, as older plants have higher concentrations of kavalactones. After reaching about 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height, plants grow a wider stalk and additional stalks, but not much taller. The roots can reach

3720-598: Was lost for Austronesians in Oceania. According to Lynch (2002), the reconstructed Proto-Polynesian term for the plant, *kava , was derived from the Proto-Oceanic term *kawaR in the sense of a "bitter root" or "potent root [used as fish poison]". It may have been related to reconstructed *wakaR (in Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ) via metathesis . It originally referred to Zingiber zerumbet , used to make

3782-476: Was not a happy one. When they came into conflict, the Vuaniivi clan fled to Kubuna and sought the protection of Titokobitu, the Chief of Namara. Together with some other chiefs of Namara, they reached Koro and from there went to Vuna, on the island of Taveuni , and thence to Vanuabalavu. The Namara people who later joined their early travellers now of Levukana village on Lomaloma were left behind at Vuna and they fled to

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3844-409: Was prepared from dry or fresh plant, and on the variety. The colour is grey to tan to opaque greenish. Kava prepared as described above is much more potent than processed kava. Chewing produces the strongest effect because it produces the finest particles. Fresh, undried kava produces a stronger beverage than dry kava. The strength also depends on the species and techniques of cultivation. In Vanuatu,

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