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144-527: The region has been perennially beleaguered by incessant conflicts, leading to widespread violence and large-scale displacement. Adjacent to Kitchanga, the Mungote and Kahe Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps accommodate a significant number of displaced people. As of 2015, the Kahe camp housed 5,760 displaced persons, including refugees from Rwanda, while the Mungote camp sheltered 14,599 people. The Bashali Chiefdom

288-586: A Tutsi Zairean and head of president Mobutu Sese Seko 's cabinet , influenced the enactment of the first Law on Nationality, granting Zairean nationality automatically to Rwandan migrants who had arrived in Kivu before independence. The 1973 land act, part of the Zairianisation policy, conferred land law benefits to the Banyarwanda, enabling them to secure landholdings through new legal mechanisms. This law facilitated

432-681: A binding international legal regime on internal displacement is a grave lacuna in international law." In September 2004 the Secretary-General of the UN showed the continuing concern of his office by appointing Walter Kälin as his Representative on the Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons. Part of his mandate includes the promoting of the Guiding Principles. In so-called "post-conflict" situations, there has traditionally been an emphasis in

576-805: A brief respite in violence was achieved through military intervention by the Special Presidential Division (DSP) and extensive communication efforts involving official actors, civil society, and NGOs. These efforts culminated in a pacification agreement signed by community representatives from Bashali Chiefdom and Bwito Chiefdom. Following the Rwandan Civil War , an estimated 1.2 million Hutu refugees fled to Kivu, establishing extensive refugee encampments administrated by international humanitarian organizations. These camps, predominantly sheltering Rwandan Hutus, served as operational epicenters for former génocidaires , Hutu civilians, and ex-personnel of

720-528: A coalition of Mai-Mai Nyatura and APCLS fighters left at least eleven dead and eight seriously injured, with two children missing and several captured. A PNC report from March 28 indicated that 57 women were raped between January 1 and March 28 by fighters from NDC-Rénové, Nyatura de Kavumbi, and Bohoza from the Apollo group, with local sources reporting over 300 people killed in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement during

864-548: A confrontation erupted between FARDC and CNDP in Mushaki around 3 a.m. local time, intensifying around 4 a.m. towards Bihambwe, Matanda, and Katale on the road to Masisi center. Other clashes were reported in Katshiru, Weso, and Buranda, beyond Kitchanga, approximately one hundred kilometers west of Goma. Nkunda declared war through international media and did not provide the 500 men he had promised MONUSCO for integration. MONUSCO dismantled

1008-595: A counterattack from M23, prompting them to temporarily withdraw to avoid collateral damage. By October 8, Wazalendo retook Nturo village and parts of Kitchanga and Kilolirwe, fully reclaiming Kitchanga and Burungu by October 9. However, on October 21, Kitchanga fell once more to M23 after intense clashes with Wazalendo within the town, positioning their most advanced outposts at Ndondo (3 km north of Kitchanga), Kinyumba (5 km west), and Burungu. Stray bullets during these clashes claimed two civilian lives and injured five others, prompting widespread displacement. As of October 23,

1152-455: A cross-sector collaboration as a key means to assist displaced people. The cluster approach designates individual agencies as 'sector leaders' to coordinate operations in specific areas to try to plug those newly identified gaps. The cluster approach was conceived amid concerns about coordination and capacity that arose from the weak operational response to the crisis in Darfur in 2004 and 2005, and

1296-593: A framework is created in which to resolve these issues. Kanyarwanda War Other major events The Kanyarwanda War ( French : Guerre de Kanyarwanda ) was a conflict in the northeastern region of Congo-Léopoldville , specifically the newly-established province of North Kivu , between the Banyarwanda and indigenous groups within North Kivu including the Hunde and Nande groups that lasted from 1963 to 1966. It

1440-464: A fundamental change in the approach to those who are displaced and their host societies. They note that re-framing responses to urban displacement will also involve human rights and development actors and local and national governments. They call for a change in the narrative around the issue is needed to reflect ingenuity and fortitude displayed by displaced populations, the opportunities for self-sufficiency and safety represented by urban areas, and that

1584-447: A more alarming death toll of approximately 300. The attack caused the displacement of hundreds of thousands, forcing them to flee to nearby locations such as Kanyabayonga , Kibirizi, Kashala, Kirima, Nyanzale, Kashalira, Bambu, and Kitchanga. On December 15, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken urged Rwanda to "use its influence with M23 to encourage" them to withdraw and to "pull back" its own forces. Belgium , France , Germany , and

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1728-658: A separate peace and recruited numerous Hutu Banyarwanda into the "Local Defence Forces," allied with the RCD/RPA soldiers. Despite the failure of the FDLR's "Oracle of the Lord" operation against Rwanda in mid-2001 and the commencement of the withdrawal of Rwandan soldiers from the province in September 2002, the RCD-Goma's strategy did not yield the anticipated results. Most Mayi-Mayi groups, encouraged by

1872-594: A severe military counteraction. The turmoil intensified in late 1963 with the influx of Tutsi herdsmen fleeing the Rwandan Revolution . The ensuing political purgation in November 1963, characterized by the replacement of Banyarwanda politicians with Hunde counterparts, further inflamed the discord in the Masisi and Rutshuru territories. The legislative and provincial elections of May 1965, marred by irregularities favoring

2016-642: A shelter. Following the three-day combat between FARDC and CNDP, the FARDC reclaimed Mushaki, one of CNDP's strongholds situated 40 kilometers west of Goma, at 6 a.m. On August 26, 2008, the CNDP launched an offensive in Goma, plunging the North Kivu communities into turmoil. Nkunda justified the insurrection as a protective measure for the Congolese Tutsi, thus imbuing the conflict with an ethnic dimension. As with any armed conflict,

2160-640: A so-called cleansing operation ( opération de nettoyage) between Sake and Kitchanga against Nkunda's loyalists. Most of these areas remained under the occupation of Nkunda's insurgents. However, the localités of Tongo and Bambu groupements in the Bwito Chiefdom were seized that same day by the 9th Integrated Brigade as part of the same operation. This fighting precipitated a mass exodus, with many families fleeing Bashali Chiefdom towards Goma, and others towards Minova in South Kivu . The United Nations Office for

2304-529: A soldier from the Tanzanian contingent). As of May 8, the FARDC, supported by Wazalendo fighters, engaged in violent clashes with M23 rebels. These confrontations, involving heavy weaponry, occurred in the hills of Ngumba and Lutobogo, less than 5 km from Sake. M23 forces attempted an incursion from Kanve towards the RN2 national road, targeting entry into Sake. Their attempt was successfully repelled. The chiefdom's economy

2448-538: A statement released in Nairobi. Human Rights Watch documented eight illegal executions and 14 cases of rape committed by M23 rebels, as well as receiving credible information about more than a dozen other summary executions committed by M23. Seven other people were killed and three others injured during indiscriminate bombings on populated areas, including Kanombe, Kitshanga in Rutshuru Territory, and near Mushaki during

2592-571: A strong presence in Kimoka towards Virunga National Park , around thirty kilometers from Goma. Radio Okapi reported that his men came from Kitchanga, Goma, and Mushaki in civilian clothes, donning military uniforms upon arrival in Sake . This sowed widespread outrage and revulsion among the locals who feared Nkunda's presence in Sake. On November 26, the 11th Integrated Brigade of FARDC launched an offensive as part of

2736-497: A weapon of war, local abductions, town burnings, inhumane treatment of hostages, and systematic looting. On September 20, clashes between Wazalendo and M23 displaced villagers towards Kalengera, Rugogwe, and Mweso. On October 6, fighting between M23 and Wazalendo on the Kitchanga-Burungu-Kilolirwe axis halted traffic between Goma and northern North Kivu Province. Wazalendo subsequently gained control of Kitchanga but faced

2880-658: A woman, were injured by shell shrapnel on the outskirts of Tongo. FARDC thwarted M23's attempts to advance towards Kilimanyoka and Kibati, subsequently pushing them back to the vicinity of the Ruhunda market – 3 branches in Kibumba. Between November 29 and December 1, 2022, M23 perpetrated a massacre , resulting in 131 deaths in Bwito Chiefdom across Bambo, Tongo, and Bishusha groupements according to UNJHRO and MONUSCO preliminary investigations. However, Kinshasa authorities reported

3024-900: Is a specific request by the UN Secretary-General and with the consent of the State concerned it has been willing to respond by assisting IDPs in a given instance. In 2005 it was helping some 5.6 million IDPs (out of over 25 million), but only about 1.1 million in Africa. In 2005, the UNHCR signed an agreement with other humanitarian agencies. "Under this agreement, UNHCR will assume the lead responsibility for protection, emergency shelter and camp management for internally displaced people." In 2019, UNHCR issued an updated IDP policy that reaffirms its commitment to engaging decisively and predictably in situations of internal displacement. The International Committee of

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3168-418: Is no real focus of responsibility in the field for assisting and protecting... There is also no predictability of action, as the different agencies are free to pick and choose the situations in which they wish to become involved on the basis of their respective mandates, resources, and interests. In every new emergency, no one knows for sure which agency or combination thereof will become involved. In 2005 there

3312-569: Is predominantly agropastoral . A significant portion of the population is engaged in both crop and livestock farming. Historically, the region's economy relied heavily on the industrial production of coffee , tea , cinchona , and tobacco . However, these activities declined sharply after the Zairianisation measures initiated in 1973, which led to the abandonment or destruction of many production units. The focus then shifted towards cattle production, which has often led to conflicts over land between livestock farmers and crop farmers. Bashali Chiefdom

3456-579: Is rich in mineral resources, including cassiterite , coltan , tourmaline , and columbo- tantalite . However, the mining sector is plagued by challenges, as it remains largely artisanal and often illegal. The exploitation of these minerals has not benefited the local population; instead, it has resulted in significant social and environmental issues, turning potential developmental assets into sources of conflict and misery. The chiefdom has made some progress in education, boasting 221 primary schools, 95 secondary schools, and two institutions of higher education:

3600-519: Is strategically situated in the mountainous terrains of North Kivu Province, with an altitudinal range fluctuating between 1,500 and 2,000 meters. The region experiences a distinct pluvial season from September to April, succeeded by an arid season from May to August, which contributes to a climate conducive to a variety of essential agricultural activities. The topography is characterized by its rugged nature, encompassing high mountains, extensive plains, plateaus, and hills. This diverse topography defines

3744-991: Is very difficult to assess those IDPs who flee to larger towns and cities. It is necessary for many instances to supplement official figures with additional information obtained from operational humanitarian organizations on the ground. Thus, the 24.5 million figure must be treated as an estimate. Additionally, most official figures only include those displaced by conflict or natural disasters. Development-induced IDPs often are not included in assessments. It has been estimated that between 70 and 80% of all IDPs are women and children. 50% of internally displaced people and refugees were thought to be in urban areas in 2010, many of them in protracted displacement with little likelihood of ever returning home. A 2013 study found that these protracted urban displacements had not been given due weight by international aid and governance as historically they had focused on rural cam displacement responses. The study argues that this protracted urban displacement needs

3888-584: The Armée Nationale Congolaise to intervene and crush Banyarwanda resistance. Joseph-Désiré Mobutu seized power and became President of the Congo in 1965. He subsequently re-unified most of the former provinces, including Kivu. In the late 1960s, the Banyarwanda garnered his sympathies, as Mobutu sought the support of ethnic minorities to boost his regime, as they could do little to threaten his power. The "Bakajika Law" of 1966 nationalised all land in

4032-577: The Congolese National Police (PNC) from several localities within Kitchanga. A police chief conceded that the force was unprepared for armed confrontation. In response, civil society appealed for FARDC intervention to expel the militias. On May 18, 2013, FARDC dislodged the militias from the Mbuyi and Kashanje hills towards Mweso and expelled Mai-Mai Nyatura from Muhongozi, near Kitchanga. On December 9,

4176-618: The DRC - Mali final match of the 2016 African Nations Championship in Burungu . On May 6, an NGO Heal Africa agent died from bullet wounds while fleeing fighting between APCLS and FARDC on the road between Mweso and Kitchanga. Populations from the Bashali-Mokoto groupement in several localities, including Kahira, Kirumbu, Mpati, Muhanga, and Busumba, fled to Mweso and Muhongozi, fearing for their safety after FARDC's withdrawal from Kitchanga. The local chiefs of Bashali-Mokoto petitioned military officials for

4320-523: The European Union also implored Rwanda to cease assisting M23. On January 26, 2023, M23 rebels seized Kitchanga, prompting civilians from other communities to flee in fear of retaliation. On January 27, at 9 a.m., M23 rebels initiated heavy weapon fire in Karton, about 5 kilometers north of Kitchanga, aiming to advance towards Mweso, from where FARDC had withdrawn. The rebels established two forward positions on

4464-662: The First Congo War , culminating in Kabila's ascension to the presidency in May 1997. This period was characterized by egregious human rights violations, including massacres, rapes, and forced displacements, exacerbated by the massive influx of refugees and internally displaced persons . In January 2022, the civil society of Masisi Territory, led by its president César Bayomba, documented hundreds of cases of women afflicted with fistula between 2018 and 2020, most of which traced back to 1997 during

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4608-647: The Forces pour la Défense des Intérêts du Peuple Congolais (FDIPC) attributed these attacks to the M23 rebels, claiming it was retribution against the indigenous populations in anticipation of the MONUSCO intervention brigade's arrival. On May 12, the detonation of an antipersonnel mine in Kitchanga resulted in one fatality and eight injuries, with the device being among the explosive remnants from recent clashes between APCLS militia and FARDC. On May 17, 2013, Mai-Mai Nyatura militiamen ousted

4752-715: The Humanitarian Coordinator in the country concerned. They are assisted by the Inter-Agency Displacement Division, which was created in 2004 and is housed in the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). The original collaborative approach has come under increasing criticism. Roberta Cohen reports: Nearly every UN and independent evaluation has found the collaborative approach deficient when it comes to IDPs. To begin with, there

4896-682: The Kinshasa government, refused to negotiate with the RCD-Goma and maintained their alliance with the FDLR. Consequently, the RCD-Goma attempted to fragment the Mayi-Mayi groups, offering leadership positions within the RCD-Goma to certain Mayi-Mayi leaders in exchange for their collaboration against FDLR-aligned factions. Throughout this period, civilians remained targets of violence against a backdrop of widespread resource pillaging by various armed groups. The violence escalated precipitously, with numerous documented atrocities. In early November 2002, elements of

5040-730: The Nyanzale –Katsiru road section, impeding over fifty vehicles. On November 17, FARDC engaged in clashes with M23 rebels in the Kibumba and Buhumba groupements of Bukumu Chiefdom in Nyiragongo Territory . Concurrently, battles also occurred on the Tongo axis, with M23 attempting to advance towards Kitchanga via the Bishusha groupement of Bwito Chiefdom. This escalation forced inhabitants of Bishusha, Birambizo, and Bukombo groupements in Bwito Chiefdom to flee towards Kitchanga. Five civilians, including

5184-501: The RCD-Goma sought to bolster its popular base in North Kivu by appointing Eugène Serufuli Ngayabaseka , a Hutu Banyarwanda, as the provincial governor. Serufuli endeavored to unify Tutsi and Hutu Banyarwanda under the concept of a "Rwandan-speaking" area. To weaken the alliance between the Mayi-Mayi , ex-FAR/ Interahamwe , and Hutu armed groups within the FDLR, Serufuli offered the Mayi-Mayi

5328-639: The Rwandan Armed Forces . Among these military refugees, some amalgamated into the Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda (FDLR). The existence of these camps, compounded by cattle rustling from Tutsi livestock proprietors and targeted attacks on certain Hunde communities in proximity to the camps, sparked Masisi's second ethnic war in November 1994. This conflict extended into adjacent Rutshuru and Walikale territories, intensifying violence against

5472-600: The UNHCR support monitoring and analysis of worldwide IDPs through the Geneva-based Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre . Whereas ' refugee ' has an authoritative definition under the 1951 Refugee Convention , there is no universal legal definition of internally displaced persons (IDP); only a regional treaty for African countries (see Kampala Convention ). However, a United Nations report, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement uses

5616-867: The legal definitions of a refugee. In 2022, it was estimated there were 70.5 million IDPs worldwide. The first year for which global statistics on IDPs are available was in 1989. As of 3 May 2022, the countries with the largest IDP populations were Ukraine (8 million), Syria (7.6 million), Ethiopia (5.5 million), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5.2 million), Colombia (4.9 million), Yemen (4.3 million), Afghanistan (3.8 million), Iraq (3.6 million), Sudan (2.2 million), South Sudan (1.9 million), Pakistan (1.4 million), Nigeria (1.2 million) and Somalia (1.1 million). More than 85% of Palestinians in Gaza (1.9 million) were internally displaced as of January 2024. The United Nations and

5760-526: The "identification of nationals" operation in June 1991, designed to identify voters, encountered violent resistance from armed Hutu contingents who attacked administrative establishments in Masisi , obliterated population registers, and terrorized the teams responsible for the process. These confrontations precipitated skirmishes with law enforcement, resulting in approximately thirty casualties and ultimately culminating in

5904-747: The APCLS of the killings. On December 30, clashes between Nduma défense du Congo-Rénové (NDC-Rénové) and FDLR and Conseil National pour le Renouveau et la Démocratie (CNRD) forces in Bashali-Mokoto led to the displacement of the CNRD, followed by Mai-Mai Nyatura's attempt to occupy vacated villages, resulting in further conflict with NDC-Rénové. On January 20, 2019, ten people were killed, and several injured during clashes between NDC-Rénové and Mai-Mai Nyatura in Kitchanga. Sixteen people were killed on January 29 in clashes among various armed groups in Bashali-Mokoto. On February 21, fighting on Katoko hill between NDC-Rénové and

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6048-548: The Bashali Chiefdom comprises a combination of dense forests and grassy savannahs . The hydrographic network includes numerous rivers and lakes that are indispensable for both the ecosystem and the local communities. Notable rivers such as Osso (Luxoo), Mweso, Muhongozi, Lwama, Rusoma, Rwambi, Twaliba, Bushenge, Bushaala, Luwe, Lweti, Lwitwi, Katalandwa, Kihimba, and Katanda traverse the region. Four significant lakes, Mukoto, Ndalagha, Lukulu, Mbalukira, and Mbita, enrich

6192-462: The Bashali Chiefdom comprises two groupements : Bashali-Mokoto and Bashali-Kaembe. Kitchanga serves as the capital of the chiefdom, consolidating a total of 23 localités , including sixteen in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement and seven in the Bashali-Kaembe groupement . The Bashali-Mokoto groupement consists of 16 localités : Bashali-Kaembe groupement consists of 7 localités : The area

6336-635: The Belgian administration dissolved the Gishari Chiefdom and amalgamated it into the Bahunde Chiefdom, with Bweremana as its chief town. Subsequent administrative reorganizations culminated in December 1977 with the creation of the contemporary Bashali Chiefdom, segmented into four divisions: Bahunde Chiefdom, Osso Sector, Katoyi Sector, and Bashali Chiefdom. The disbandment of the Gishari Chiefdom resulted in

6480-745: The Bukombo groupement of Bwito Chiefdom were registered in Mweso and 800 in Muhongozi. On December 16, three people were killed in Kitchanga. In May 2021, three civilians were fatally shot within two days, with one of the victims killed by militiamen in Lukweti, while another succumbed to injuries inflicted by armed men in Karunda at Masisi-center hospital. A police officer was also shot, and his weapon confiscated by unknown assailants in Kitchanga. On July 14, at least 70 fighters from

6624-526: The Bushenge sector, situated between Mweso and Kashuga, over 100 km northwest of Goma, with the objective of seizing control of Mweso. The APCLS incinerated the FARDC position in Mbuhi, resulting in the mass displacement of hundreds of households from Kashuga, Katshiru, and Kalembe, who sought refuge in Mweso and Kitchanga. Administrative officials subsequently entreated military authorities to deploy soldiers to safeguard

6768-692: The Congolese border to find asylum in Gisenyi , Rwanda. However, the governor of North Kivu, Julien Paluku Kahongya , refuted claims that certain localities had fallen to insurgents, asserting they remained under government control despite loyalty to Bosco Ntaganda. On April 30, FARDC initiated a counter-offensive against CNDP, reclaiming several localities in Masisi and Rutshuru territories, including Bwiza near Kitchanga, approximately 100 km west of Goma, and villages such as Kautu, Kabaya, and Karuba near Mushaki. By May 2, FARDC recaptured Kitchanga and Mushaki. In May 2012,

6912-425: The Congolese government. Educational activities in primary and secondary schools under M23 and its allies' occupation were suspended. On February 9, the East African Community (EAC), during a meeting in Nairobi , brokered an immediate ceasefire by all parties and the withdrawal of all local and foreign armed groups. The EAC set February 28 as the deadline for M23 to withdraw from occupied areas. The EAC delineated

7056-457: The Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs of North Kivu reported that at least 6,000 displaced families from Nyanzale , Kashuga, Darubandi, Tongo, and Mweshe sought refuge in Kitchanga. In December 2006, Nkunda formed the political armed militia Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple (CNDP). In February 2007, CNDP began imposing multiple taxes on transporters and traders in Sake, Kashebere, and Mushaki. Tensions heightened in May 2007 following

7200-411: The EAC to be deployed there. On March 13, the leader of the Groupe de Thématique Mines et Hydrocarbures de la Société Civile, Alexis Muhima, told Radio Okapi that M23 was occupying areas with numerous mining sites. The Mushaki-Karuba and Kitchanga axes, which M23 occupied, are main evacuation routes for minerals. On the same day, M23 rebels withdrew from Mweso around midnight, taking with them patients from

7344-416: The EP Kamuronza and Institut Kiluku collective centers. By early December, most EAC contingents had withdrawn from the DRC. On January 17, 2024, M23 insurgents expelled Wazalendo from Mushaki's center following intense fights in Karuba, Masisi Territory, while the EAC force remained deployed along this axis. Approximately 30,000 displaced persons from the Monkoto camp, 18 kilometers south of Kitchanga, vacated

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7488-696: The FARDC and Wazalendo. Concurrent clashes were reported around Karenga, within the Virunga National Park, and Kilolirwe along the road to Kitchanga. By November 25, the FARDC had repelled the RDF-M23 coalition's advance towards Sake after confrontations in Kilolirwe along the Sake-Kitshanga axis. The intensifying conflict precipitated mass displacements, particularly from villages around Muhanga and Kibatsiro towards Mukoto monastery, Kahira, and Kirumbu, and from Nyamitaba towards Muheto, with some refugees reaching as far as Sake. Over six thousand households fled to Sake, dispersing across four impromptu sites: Kizimba, Zainab, Kyabiringa, and Mahyutsa, while others sought refuge in

7632-583: The Hunde believed that the Banyarwanda were seeking to avoid legitimate financial obligations. Tensions were particularly acute throughout the northern area of Kivu Province, which was densely populated and thus had the least available land. By 1959, The Banyarwandan vastly outnumbered the Hunde in Masisi and the Rutshuru Territory . During the three year period of the Rwandan Revolution from 1959 to 1962, as many as 60,000 Rwandan Tutsi refugees fled to Kivu, increasing land pressure. More well-endowed with wealth and education than their Hutu-majority predecessors,

7776-421: The Hunde, precipitated a dramatic escalation in violence. Hutu Banyarwanda and newly arrived Tutsi refugees clashed with indigenous populations and police forces, leading to widespread chaos, including looting, arson, and massacres. Provincial authorities accused the Banyarwanda of abetting the Mulelist insurrection , prompting a brutal military crackdown by the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC). In October 1965,

7920-450: The Hôpital Général de Référence de Mweso and some members of the civilian communities devoted to their cause. They advanced to Kitchanga, while other elements positioned themselves in Muongozi, Busumba, and Kirumbu around Mweso. By March 14, M23 had withdrawn from certain hills around Sake, including Ngingwe, Neenero, and Malehe. However, the M23 rebels remained in Kitchanga, Kirolirwe, Karuba, and Mushaki. On March 29, M23 systematically looted

8064-710: The IDPs in their country. However, as many of the displaced are a result of civil conflict and violence or where the authority of the central state is in doubt, there is no local authority willing to provide assistance and protection. It has been estimated that some 5 million IDPs in 11 countries are "without any significant humanitarian assistance from their governments." Under these circumstances rehabilitation policies on humanitarian grounds should be aimed at reducing inequality of opportunity among these vulnerable groups by integrating them into local social services and allowing them access to jobs, education, and healthcare opportunities; otherwise new conflicts might break out. Unlike

8208-503: The Institut Supérieur d'Etudes Agronomiques et Forestières and the Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs. Despite these efforts, gender disparity is a significant issue, with females comprising only 17% of students enrolled as of 2011. Health services in Bashali Chiefdom are divided among four zones: Masisi , Kirotshe, Pinga, and Mweso. The chiefdom is served by four reference hospitals located in Masisi, Kirotshe, Pinga, and Mweso, as well as 13 health centers spread across

8352-560: The M23 attack. On July 2, clashes between M23 and Wazalendo in Nturo village resulted in ten deaths and several injuries. In Rutshuru, locals reported hundreds of M23/ Rwandan Defense Force (RDF) soldiers passing through Kinihira towards Jomba. On July 4, Wazalendo intercepted a Burundian EAC convoy near Sake in retaliation against earlier clashes with M23 near Kilolirwe. On August 23, M23 kidnapped over 350 people from Rushebeshe village, prompting civil society accusations on August 27 of M23 atrocities including murders, assassinations, rape as

8496-411: The M23 rebel military group seized significant portions of North Kivu, with Rwanda allegedly providing arms, ammunition, medical support, recruitment, and free passage for troops and politicians. The Rwandan army reportedly participated in key attacks, including the M23 assaults on Bunagana and Rutshuru. There were indications that the Ugandan government also provided support to M23, most notably during

8640-429: The M23. Mediation efforts led by Angola under the African Union between Presidents Félix Tshisekedi and Paul Kagame made little headway. The African Union and its member states explicitly warned Rwanda that its continued military support for M23 could implicate it in M23's abuses as a matter of state responsibility, with Rwandan officials potentially being held complicit in M23 war crimes. On November 14, M23 blockaded

8784-544: The MONUSCO Intervention Brigade launched military operations against the FDLR rebels in the Kitshanga-Kalembe and Pinga areas as part of a comprehensive plan against local and foreign armed groups in the region. On December 29, armed bandits killed a police officer and burglarized seven houses in Kitchanga. The resurgence of APCLS and Mai-Mai Nyatura militias in October 2013 caused widespread displacement, with IDPs congregating in Kitchanga. On January 29, 2014, "unidentified armed bandits" killed four people in Kitchanga, including

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8928-412: The Mabenga region. Despite the EAC's directives, M23 rebels and the Rwandan army reportedly continued to occupy new regions, including Mushaki, Busumba, Rubaya, Bihambwe, Mweso, and Sake. Later, FARDC, supported by Mai-Mai Nyatura, expelled M23 rebels from Luhonga and Malehe near Sake, as well as from Rubaya . On March 11, M23 announced their withdrawal from occupied regions to allow Burundian troops from

9072-527: The Masisi Territory authorities on September 8. However, conflict between FARDC and APCLS resumed on October 20, 2017, with clashes on Kitobo hill near Kitchanga. On May 26, 2018, four people were kidnapped in Kitchanga by an unidentified armed group, later identified as Mai-Mai Nyatura. In retaliation for the kidnapping, a mother of a suspected Mai-Mai Nyatura fighter was killed by alleged APCLS fighters of Hunde persuasion. On June 2, three people died during an armed incursion in Kitchanga, with local sources accusing

9216-470: The Masisi Territory, including Karuba located 37 km northwest of Goma on the road to Mushaki. Ntaganda's forces prevented inhabitants of Karuba from leaving their homes, and other localities, including Muheto, Mushaki, Buku, Kitchanga, Bwiza, Nyamitaba, Kirolirwe, Kabati, Mukambi, Murambi, Misumbala, Luhunga, and Mweso, were also under their control. Inhabitants vacated the premises, seeking refuge in Mubambiro, 2 km from Saké, and others settled in Goma or crossed

9360-484: The Masisi Territory. Hunde administrators began to replace Hutu ones appointed by the Belgians, and violent land disputes resulted in Banyarwanda becoming dispossessed throughout the region. In 1963 the Congolese government began restructuring the provinces into smaller "provincettes". In Kivu, pushes for division were promoted by indigenous communities, particularly the Hunde and the Nande people , fearful of Banyarwanda domination. The Banyarwanda mostly favored unity of

9504-426: The Masisi-Kitchanga axis. Burundian troops temporarily withdrew from Kitchanga, Mweso, and Kilolirwe for two days due to clashes between local militias and M23 rebels. The Burundian contingent criticized the East African Community-Rwandan forces' command for indifference toward the threats faced by their troops from M23 rebels. On November 22, the RDF-M23 coalition reasserted control over Mweso following skirmishes with

9648-425: The Mayi-Mayi. On June 26, 2003, RCD-Goma soldiers used bayonets to kill seven inhabitants of Lukweti, perceived as a Mayi-Mayi stronghold, and systematically pillaged the village. In 2004, Bashali Chiefdom became a focal point for the Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC) 81st, 82nd, and 83rd Brigades, which remained allegiant to Congolese Tutsi military defector Laurent Nkunda , who accused

9792-468: The Mwami of the Bashali-Mokoto groupement was replaced by Kapenda Muhima, a prominent local Hunde aligned with the RCD. This period witnessed political and military elites, predominantly Rwandophone Congolese, acquiring vast land concessions through semi-legal and often violent means. Kitchanga attained strategic significance in the RCD's "repatriation policy," with numerous Congolese Tutsi "returnees" from Rwanda settling around Kahe in 2002. From late 2000,

9936-469: The North Kivu provincial assembly sought to expel all Rwandans, alleging their collusion with Mulelist insurgents. However, this decree was never executed, leaving the underlying tensions unresolved. Although large-scale violence subsided in the ensuing years, localized conflicts over land dispossession and ethnic mistrust persisted. Two critical developments between 1972 and 1981 intensified tensions in Masisi Territory. In 1972, Barthélemy Bisengimana Rwema ,

10080-401: The RCD-Goma massacred an indeterminate number of Hunde during an assault on the village of Bushimoo in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement . On November 3, 2002, Mayi-Mayi forces under a Hunde leader incinerated several Nyanga villages in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement , resulting in numerous casualties. Between January 21 and 23, 2003, RCD-Goma forces executed an unknown number of Hunde civilians in

10224-476: The Red Cross has a mandate of ensuring the application of international humanitarian law as it affects civilians in the midst of armed conflict. They have traditionally not distinguished between civilians who are internally displaced and those who remain in their homes. In a 2006 policy statement, the ICRC stated: The ICRC's overall objective is to alleviate the suffering of people who are caught up in armed conflict and other situations of violence. To that end,

10368-667: The Sake-Kilolirwe-Kitchanga-Mweso axis established their presence where M23 rebels were still positioned. Precursor detachments of soldiers from the South Sudan People's Defense Forces (SPLA) arrived in Goma on April 2–3 to reinforce the EAC regional force. On April 4, M23 rebels withdrew from Kitchanga and left the villages of Luhanga and Mpati after their withdrawal from the agglomeration of Mweso and other small villages around Kitchanga. The same day, Radio Okapi reported that

10512-645: The UN General Assembly, the African Commission on Human and People's Rights (ACHPR) and by the signatories to the 2006 Pact on Security, Stability and Development in the Great Lakes Region , which include Sudan, DRC and Uganda. The Guiding Principles, however, are non-binding. As Bahame Tom Nyanduga, Special Rapporteur on Refugees, IDPs and Asylum Seekers in Africa for the ACHPR has stated, "the absence of

10656-428: The above stresses two important elements of internal displacement (coercion and the domestic/internal movement), rather than a strict definition the Guiding Principles offer "a descriptive identification of the category of persons whose needs are the concern of the Guiding Principles". In this way, the document "intentionally steers toward flexibility rather than legal precision" as the words "in particular" indicate that

10800-479: The armed group Alliance des Nationalistes Congolais pour la Défense des droits Humains (ANCDH), known as Nyatura Abazungu, surrendered to FARDC in a ceremony officiated by the provincial governor, Lieutenant General Constant Ndima Kongba in Kitchanga, relinquishing 65 weapons, including numerous AK-47s . On May 12, 2022, Congolese President Félix Tshisekedi declared his opposition to any alliance between Congolese military commanders and armed groups, particularly

10944-901: The arrest of 14 Rwandans, including CNDP militants, and reports from MONUSCO indicating that Nkunda's forces in North Kivu were wearing various Rwandan military uniforms. In September 2007, the CNDP forcibly recruited children from the Nyakaboya Institute and its surroundings to participate in their warfare. The recruitment spanned Kwasimoni, Muheto, Nyakabowa, and Nyamitaba, causing widespread displacement of civilians from Muheto, Nyamitaba, Kalonge, Kausa, Kitshanga, and Kwasimoni towards Lushebere and Katalé. Pernille Ironside, UNICEF's human rights advocate in eastern DRC, declared that these children were recruited in Ngungu and Kitchanga in Masisi Territory and Nyamilima in Rutshuru Territory. In October 2007,

11088-466: The authority of a Tutsi chief. Conflict arose when the Banyarwanda attempted to expand the jurisdiction of the chiefdom, and in 1957 the Belgians dissolved Gishari, leaving the immigrants under the authority of a Hunde mwami. They paid Hunde chiefs redevances for access to land and this relationship generated resentment, as the Banyarwanda felt it unfair that they should pay for the land they worked, while

11232-447: The camp under threat from M23, compelling them to return to their "original" localities. On January 24, at 7:30 a.m., Wazalendo and FARDC recaptured Mweso after three days of fierce combat, forcing the M23 rebels to retreat to the hills. On January 29, M23 forces launched several bombardments in Masisi Territory, impacting Sake and Mubambiro, located approximately 30 km from Goma. The attack resulted in two fatalities, 12 severe injuries, and

11376-541: The case of refugees, there is no international humanitarian institution which has the overall responsibility of protecting and assisting the refugees as well as the internally displaced. A number of organizations have stepped into the breach in specific circumstances. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was mandated by General Assembly Resolution 428 (V) of 14 December 1950 to "lead and coordinate international action for

11520-574: The case of refugees, there is no international universal treaty which applies specifically to IDPs. Only a regional treaty for African countries has been established (see Kampala Convention ). Some other countries have advocated re-thinking the definitions and protections for refugees to apply to IDPs, but so far no solid actions have come to fruition. Recognizing the gap, the UN Secretary-General, Boutros-Ghali appointed Francis Deng in 1992 as his representative for internally displaced persons. Besides acting as an advocate for IDPs, Deng set out in 1994, at

11664-567: The collapse of the identification initiative. From 1991 to early 1993, large-scale violence abated, yet localized violent incidents persisted. Assassinations of traditional leaders, larceny of cattle, arson, and the destruction of infrastructure were rampant. Each ethnic group established "self-defense militias," which were armed and organized along ethnic lines. Social relations between Banyarwanda and indigenous people deteriorated further, exacerbated by calls for civil disobedience by Banyarwanda politicians and mutual societies. These groups encouraged

11808-408: The conflict revolved around the governance structures of the future provincial assemblies in the newly constituted provinces of North Kivu and Central Kivu. The nationality and political enfranchisement of the Banyarwanda emerged as contentious subjects, leading to powerful centrifugal forces. In September 1962, armed Banyarwanda attacked Hunde communities and police outposts, resulting in ten deaths and

11952-503: The country, and thus the government was able to redistribute it as it wished. This resulted in property in northern Kivu becoming concentrated in the hands of wealthy Tutsis. The Banyarwanda were also formally assured of citizenship by law in 1972. In 1981 the Legislative Council repealed the law and replaced it with an ordinance guaranteeing citizenship only to those individuals whose ancestors belonged to tribes which has resided in

12096-809: The creation of North Kivu, revolted against the Banywarwanda in Masisi. According to Thomas Turner, the Banywarwanda started the conflict by waging a campaign to regain their lost property. The Bashi were generally sympathetic to the Banyarwanda. Early on in the conflict, Hunde militants burned the provincial administrative archives in an attempt to destroy local records of the Banyarwanda, thus reducing them to foreign status. Both belligerents employed murder, torture, and forced displacement as tactics. The violence increased dramatically in 1965. The indigenous militants inflicted massacres upon Hutus and Tutsis, and some territorial authorities arrested Banyarwanda leaders for "disobedience during an electoral period" (in light of

12240-664: The critical findings of the Humanitarian Response Review (HRR) commissioned by the then ERC, Jan Egeland. Egeland called for strengthening the leadership of the sectors, and introduced the concept of "clusters" at different levels (headquarters, regional, country and operational)'. The cluster approach operates on the global and local levels. At the global level, the approach is meant to build up capacity in eleven key 'gap' areas by developing better surge capacity, ensuring consistent access to appropriately trained technical expertise and enhanced material stockpiles, and securing

12384-588: The deaths of 17 APCLS militiamen and one FARDC officer, with FARDC forces subsequently expelling the militants from the outskirts of Kitchanga. On April 22, Mai-Mai Nyatura militiamen reportedly killed six people during an armed attack in Rutshuru-center. They also slaughtered five cows on a farm adjacent to the Mwami Ndeze stadium before retreating into the bush along the Katemba-Tongo axis. However, locals and

12528-404: The definition of: persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border. While

12672-585: The deprivation of traditional authority among the Banyarwanda of Masisi Territory, leading to a significant impact on their political representation. Following Congo's independence, localized tensions crescendoed into the Kanyarwanda War from 1962 to 1965. During this period, Banyarwanda and indigenous political figures, notably the Nandes , vied for control over the redistribution of the Kivu - Maniéma province. The crux of

12816-640: The destruction of crops. Both sides aimed to eliminate the traditional leaders of the opposing group, causing massive displacements. Over 200,000 people were forced to move to escape the violence, with many seeking refuge in areas where their ethnic group was in the majority. Estimates suggest that between 7,000 and 14,000 people were killed in six months of intense fighting. The conflict obliterated social cohesion , with each ethnic group retreating into secure areas. Traditional leaders on both sides were targeted, with Hunde leaders fleeing to Goma and Banyarwanda leaders to Rutshuru . Between November 1993 and August 1994,

12960-561: The destruction of seven houses. On January 31, FARDC initiated an artillery offensive against M23 positions in Karuba, Mushaki, and Musekera, about ten kilometers from Sake towards the hills. On February 29, at approximately 11 a.m. local time, two projectiles originating from the Kihuli hill summit, controlled by M23 rebels, struck the roundabout on the Kitchanga axis in Sake, damaging SAMIDRC armored vehicles and injuring two people (a civilian and

13104-438: The displaced can make a contribution to their host societies. An updated country by country breakdown can be found online. The following table is a list of countries and territories by the number of Internally Displaced People (IDPs). According to Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), the internal displacement figures refer to the number of forced movements of people within the borders of their country recorded during

13248-638: The displaced populace. That same month, the NGO Heal Africa reported 112 instances of sexual violence in March 2012, with numerous victims being minor girls, attributing the insecurity to the presence of armed groups and numerous displaced persons' camps. Later in April 2012, Bosco Ntaganda , chief of staff of the CNDP, established headquarters in Kingi and Kibati, on the road to Kitchanga, and commandeered several localities in

13392-717: The displacement of nearly 100,000 people. The APCLS accused the government of failing to integrate its fighters into the national army to perpetuate threats from Tutsi rebel factions allegedly supported by Rwanda. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) issued a plea to halt violence against Kitchanga's civilian population. Ban Ki-moon , then UN Secretary-General , urged the UN Security Council to sanction an international intervention brigade. On March 29, 2013, skirmishes between APCLS and FARDC in Kitobo and Muhanga resulted in

13536-563: The displacement of over 450,000 people. More than 500 people sought refuge at MONUSCO's base in Kitchanga. On February 4, RCPB, broadcasting from Kitchanga, was systematically looted, with M23 rebels absconding with eight batteries, ten solar panels, one converter, one generator, three computers, two printers, and approximately ten chairs. On February 6, M23 and their allies convened a meeting, urging Kitchanga's population to return to their residences with promises of security. However, residents refused to return, petitioning instead for assistance from

13680-583: The eastern Congo to mitigate population density in Ruanda and provide agricultural labour in the Congo. Over 25,000 Ruandans moved to the Masisi Territory between 1937 and 1945, later joined by about 60,000 immigrants between 1949 and 1955(In addition to the native Tutsi and Hutu from the former Rwandan Kingdom who had been cut off by the Berlin conference map cutout). Most of the immigrants were ethnically Hutu , but

13824-495: The first massacres of Hutu peasants at the Ntoto market in eastern Walikale Territory. This atrocity quickly spread to surrounding villages, sparking a wave of reciprocal violence. Hutu groups from Masisi Territory retaliated by attacking Hunde communities, leading to a brutal cycle of massacres and counter-massacres. The ensuing conflict was characterized by indiscriminate violence , including massacres of civilians, theft of livestock, and

13968-531: The global level both participate directly in operations, but also coordinate with and oversee other organizations within their specific spheres, reporting the results up through a designated chain of command to the ERC at the summit. However, lead agencies are responsible as "providers of last resort", which represents the commitment of cluster leads to do their utmost to ensure an adequate and appropriate response in their respective areas of responsibility. The cluster approach

14112-489: The government of neglecting to integrate his military faction into the national army and failing to safeguard their interests. In February 2006, Nkunda's adherents were reported to be coercing civilians to carry their belongings and subjecting them to corporal punishment for noncompliance. Some were compelled to transport loads into the remote forest area of Bwiza. Local authorities implored the government to restore peace in Kitchanga. In November 2006, Nkunda's soldiers established

14256-586: The head of the Wanianga sector and his counterpart from Bashali Chiefdom. However, within two months, two women were killed in the Mungote displaced persons camp. That same month, Radio Okapi reported that six people had been killed and six others injured. Bashali Chiefdom authorities petitioned for the closure of the Mungote displaced persons camp, which they believed was the epicenter of escalating insecurity in Kitchanga. On October 9, approximately 1,100 displaced households from Lumbasha, Lushebere, Kanyangahe, and Masha in

14400-813: The hills around the MONUSCO base, one at Rusinga north of Kitchanga, and another on Kitobo hill, 2 kilometers southwest of Kitchanga, towards Kibarizo. Hundreds of displaced people flocked to the former Bulengo site in the Lac Vert district, which had hosted numerous displaced households during the CNDP era in 2007 and 2008. However, Radio Okapi reported that the site was undeveloped, lacking latrines and potable water. Subsequently, three local radio stations broadcasting in Bashali Chiefdom, namely Radio Communautaire de Mweso (RCM), Radio Communautaire pour la Paix des Bashali (RCPB), and Radio CORAKI FM of Kitchanga, were compelled to cease operations due to threats from M23 rebels. Fighting between M23 rebels and FARDC on February 1 resulted in

14544-528: The increased engagement of all relevant humanitarian partners. At the field level, the cluster approach strengthens the coordination and response capacity by mobilizing clusters of humanitarian agencies (UN/Red Cross-Red Crescent/IOs/NGOs) to respond in particular sectors or areas of activity, each cluster having a clearly designated and accountable lead, as agreed by the HC and the Country Team. Designated lead agencies at

14688-493: The international community to seek to return to the pre-war status quo. However, opinions are gradually changing, because violent conflict destroys political, economic and social structures and new structures develop as a result, quite often irreversibly. Furthermore, returning to the pre-war status-quo may actually be undesirable if pre-war structures led to the conflict in the first place, or prevented its early resolution. IDPs' and refugees ' right of return can represent one of

14832-572: The list of reasons for displacement is not exhaustive. However, as Erin Mooney has pointed out, "global statistics on internal displacement generally count only IDPs uprooted by conflict and human rights violations. Moreover, a recent study has recommended that the IDP concept should be defined even more narrowly, to be limited to persons displaced by violence." This outlook has become outdated, however, as natural disasters and slow-onset climate degradation have become

14976-613: The long-integrated Tutsis in Kivu. Confronted with escalating security threats and the intensifying "manhunt" for Tutsis, an armed coalition comprising Banyamulenge insurgents and other factions opposed to the Mobutu regime coalesced into the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) in 1996. Supported by Rwanda and Uganda and driven by various economic interests, this coalition, under Laurent-Désiré Kabila , instigated

15120-608: The most complex aspects of this issue. Normally, pressure is applied by the international community and humanitarian organization to ensure displaced people are able to return to their areas of origin and the same property. The UN Principles for Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and IDPs, otherwise known as the Pinheiro Principles, provides guidance on the management of the technical and legal aspects of housing, land and property (HLP) restitution. Restitution rights are of key importance to IDPs and refugees around

15264-489: The national elections scheduled for 1965). Army personnel massacred approximately 300 Banyarwanda near Burungu . In October 1965 the North Kivu Provincial Assembly passed a resolution demanding the expulsion of Banyarwanda from the province, citing their "collusion with rebels". This order was abrogated by the Congolese central government. The conflict ended in 1966, when the Hunde successfully convinced

15408-460: The national police chief, a farmer, and a teacher. In response, on February 9, FARDC launched an offensive against APCLS and Mai-Mai Nyatura in Kibarizo, Muhanga, and Butare, approximately twenty kilometers west of Kitchanga. By the afternoon, FARDC dislodged APCLS from Kibarizo, Muhanga, and Butare. In January 2015, cows became targets of armed groups in Kitchanga, with nearly 70 animals slaughtered in

15552-660: The needs of IDPs was referred to as the collaborative approach as the responsibility for protecting and assisting IDPs was shared among the UN agencies, i.e. UNHCR, Unicef , WFP , UNDP , Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the ICRC and international NGOs . Coordination is the responsibility of the UN Emergency Relief Coordinator and

15696-515: The neighboring Ruanda-Urundi territory into the eastern regions of the then- Belgian Congo . This migration was catalyzed by the development of colonial agricultural enterprises in the Belgian Congo and aimed at mitigating population pressures in the densely populated Ruanda-Urundi territory. By 1939, territories within Masisi were expropriated from Bahunde chieftains to resettle approximately 80,000 Hutu Banyarwanda agriculturalists . This influx

15840-739: The new wave of "fifty-niners" was able to obtain more land through bribery. At the time of the independence of the Republic of the Congo in 1960, the legal status of the Banyarwanda was considered controversial and thus the Loi Fondamentale —the national constitution—did not address it. Most Banyarwanda were thus considered citizens but non-indigenous. Many were elected to government offices. After independence Banyarwanda elites attempt to cement their dominance over northern Kivu by encouraging illegal immigration and forcing indigenous chiefs out of Rutshuru. The indigenous people responded with similar actions in

15984-471: The number included Tutsi pastoralists; collectively, they were known as Banyarwanda . The classification also included some Tutsi herders who had lived in the region before the colonial period. The land they occupied in the Congo had historically been home to the Hunde people , but the Banyarwanda insisted on living within a polity of their own. In response, the Belgians created the Gishari chiefdom subject to

16128-757: The organization strives to provide effective and efficient assistance and protection for such persons, be they displaced or not, while taking into consideration the action of other humanitarian organizations. On the basis of its long experience in different parts of the world, the ICRC has defined an operational approach towards the civilian population as a whole that is designed to meet the most urgent humanitarian needs of both displaced persons and local and host communities. However, its Director of Operations has earlier recognized that IDPs "deprived of shelter and their habitual sources of food, water, medicine and money, they have different, and often more urgent, material needs." The previous system set up internationally to address

16272-720: The passage of the AFDL, when women were victims of sexual violence and unassisted childbirth . In 1998, the Second Congo War erupted when Laurent-Désiré Kabila endeavored to expel his Rwandan allies. This led to the eastern Congo coming under the control of the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD), a rebel faction supported by Rwanda and Uganda. During this epoch, Kitchanga evolved into a sanctuary for displaced individuals. The RCD restructured local governance, supplanting traditional leaders with people aligned with their cause. For instance,

16416-417: The people to withhold taxes from traditional Hunde leaders and manage land autonomously. This epoch also saw the expulsion of indigenous farmers by Banyarwanda neighbors, particularly in areas where they were a minority. Large farmers employed soldiers to guard pastures and herds. On March 20, 1993, violence peaked when groups of young Hunde, Nyanga , and Tembo, likely organized by local politicians, perpetrated

16560-416: The physical landscape and significantly influences anthropogenic activities and settlement patterns. The volcanic soil prevalent in the Bashali Chiefdom is fertile , enriched with a high humus content, making it highly amenable to agricultural use. Additionally, the substratum is replete with valuable mineral resources, such as tourmaline , columbo- tantalite , and cassiterite . The vegetative cover of

16704-644: The population's property, particularly livestock , before retreating to the hills of Gasiza, located 3 kilometers from Bihambwe on the Matanda groupement of Bahunde Chiefdom. On March 30, Radio Okapi reported that the Kenyan contingent, which was supposed to deploy its troops, had not arrived in the planned regions, which remained under M23 control. The Burundian soldiers were not implemented because M23 rebels still occupied Kitchanga to Mweso and expanded their area of control. The South Sudanese contingent also had not arrived in

16848-441: The primary driving force behind internal displacement in recent years, although conflict remains the primary reason for pre-existing IDPs overall. Climate displaced IDPs are therefore being given more attention overall through being recorded in statistics. Thus, despite the non-exhaustive reasons for internal displacement, many consider IDPs as those who would be defined as refugees if they were to cross an international border, hence,

16992-448: The province, as they represented a large proportion of the population of the city of Goma but also retained interest in Bukavu . Ultimately three new provinces were created, including North Kivu . In late 1963, tensions in northern Kivu led to full conflict between the Banyarwanda and indigenous peoples. According to René Lemarchand , the war started when the Hunde and Nande, spurred by

17136-658: The provincial civil society coordination in North Kivu reported nearly 20 fatalities and 22 injuries for the month. On November 5, the villages of Nyakabingu, Kabalekasha, and Rushebeshe fell under M23 control, supported by the Rwandan army, following engagements with Wazalendo. The M23 continued launching attacks to sever traffic between Kitchanga and Goma, aiming to reclaim their former positions as far as Kilolirwe. On November 9, FARDC conducted aerial bombings on M23 positions in Kilolirwe and surrounding areas such as Kausa and Muyange along

17280-542: The rebels had already withdrawn from almost the entire Bashali-Kaembe groupement , except Kilolirwe, where they remained. On April 30, armed men associated with M23 rebels killed a man and injured his wife and children in an incursion. On May 9, the humanitarian organization Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) reported having provided care to 674 survivors of sexual violence during the last two weeks of April in IDP camps around Goma. On June 13, Human Rights Watch accused M23 rebels of murders , summary executions , and rapes in

17424-614: The redeployment of its regional forces within the eastern DRC, with the Burundi National Defence Force (FDNB) assigned to Sake, Kirolirwe, and Kitchanga, while the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) were designated to Kibumba, Rumangabo , Tongo, and Kishishe. South Sudanese forces were to be positioned in Rumangabo alongside the Kenyan contingent, whereas Ugandan forces were assigned to Bunagana , Kiwanja, Rutshuru , and

17568-532: The redeployment of troops to facilitate the return of populations long affected by insecurity imposed by the Mai-Mai Nyatura and their FDLR allies. On August 23, 2016, a peace accord was brokered between the APCLS and Mai-Mai Nyatura militias in Muhanga, facilitated by local officials and security services, pledging to foster peace and development in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement . The militias returned 24 weapons to

17712-721: The region's hydrography. These lakes, drained by the Muhongozi River originating from Kibachiro in the Muhanga locality of the Bashali-Mukoto groupement , are abundant in fish and hold substantial potential for enhancing the socio-economic development of the chiefdom through sustainable fishing practices. The Bashali Chiefdom is divided into smaller administrative units denominated as groupings ( groupements ), each overseen by traditional chieftains called " mwamis ." These groupements are further subdivided into villages ( localités ), each administered by customary chiefs. As of 2018,

17856-569: The region. However, Bunagana, central Rutshuru, Kiwanja, and Mabenga remained occupied by M23 while the Ugandan soldiers who were supposed to be deployed in this region were positioned at the DRC-Ugandan border. The chiefs of staff of the EAC member countries decided that the cantonment and disarmament of M23 rebels on Congolese territory should be overseen by Congolese authorities, the ad hoc verification mechanism, MONUSCO, and regional forces. On April 2,

18000-433: The region. These health centers are located in Burungu , Kausa, Kanyatsi, Kalonge, Muheto, Nyamitaba, Pinga, Mweso, Kitchanga , Lukweti, Tambi-Kahira, and Kalembe of Nyakariba. Internally displaced person An internally displaced person ( IDP ) is someone who is forced to leave their home but who remains within their country's borders. They are often referred to as refugees , although they do not fall within

18144-406: The request of the UN General Assembly to examine and bring together existing international laws which relate to the protection of IDPs. The result of this work was the document, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement . The Guiding Principles lay out the responsibilities of states before displacement – that is, to prevent displacement – during and after displacement. They have been endorsed by

18288-448: The same month. These livestock massacres were linked to the conflict between farmers and herders over land disputes. On March 25, FARDC regained control of Lukweti in the Bashali-Mokoto groupement , previously occupied by APCLS for several years. The FARDC's 802nd regiment from Kitchanga then launched an offensive against APCLS positions in Lukweti. On February 7, 2016, three people were shot dead by armed men in FARDC uniforms while watching

18432-503: The same period, including more than 100 civilians. In July 2019, MONUSCO and STAREC, a government program designed for regions affected by armed conflicts, facilitated peaceful cohabitation and social dialogue in Pinga between the Hunde and Nyanga communities to disassociate themselves from armed groups. The administrators of the Walikale and Masisi territories moderated the meeting, accompanied by

18576-424: The second battle for Rutshuru on July 24-25. By January 2013, approximately 54,400 IDPs were residing in the Mweso health zone of the Bashali-Mokoto groupement , deprived of humanitarian assistance for nearly five months and subjected to various forms of harassment by M23 and other local militias. From February to March 2013, clashes between FARDC and APCLS in Kitchanga resulted in 80 fatalities, numerous injuries, and

18720-843: The struggles faced by the crop-farming populations of Masisi. The Masisi War, which ensued from February 1990s to March 1993, was characterized by intense violence engulfing the Walikale Territory , Masisi Territory, and Rutshuru Territory, with a pronounced focus on the Bwito Chiefdom . The declaration of democratization by Mobutu in April 1990, and the subsequent initiation of the Sovereign National Conference (CNS) in August 1991, reignited ethnic conflicts as Banyarwanda and indigenous factions clashed over representation. The deferment of municipal elections in North and South Kivu, coupled with

18864-432: The term refugees in all but the name is often applied to IDPs. It is very difficult to get accurate figures for internally displaced persons because populations are not constant. IDPs may be returning home while others are fleeing, and others may periodically return to IDP camps to take advantage of humanitarian aid. While the case of IDPs in large camps such as those in Darfur, western Sudan, are relatively well-reported, it

19008-491: The transit camp established in Mushaki, which was to accommodate CNDP's militias. At least 6,000 families, mainly Congolese Tutsi from Mushaki, fled towards Kirolirwe, approximately 20 kilometers northwest of Goma on the Kitshanga road. Around 10,000 displaced people, primarily Hutus, Hunde, and Tutsis, from Mweso, Kalembe, Nyanzale, and neighboring regions, congregated for nearly a month in a primary school in Kitchanga repurposed as

19152-404: The usurpation of arable land and marginalized indigenous agricultural practices. During this period, the Congolese government initiated a large-scale livestock farming program in North Kivu, supported by international institutions. The economic prospects of cattle farming attracted government officials, merchants, and affluent individuals to North Kivu, leading to a scramble for land that intensified

19296-461: The villages of Bushimoo, Kauli, and Binyungunyungu. During these attacks, they opened fire on civilians, set fire to villages, and committed acts of rape . On February 25, 2003, RCD-Goma elements killed at least 44 people in Bushimoo and Kailenge during a purported community meeting. In April 2003, the RCD-Goma killed five civilians and tortured two women near Walikale, accusing them of collaborating with

19440-452: The war generated numerous casualties and exacerbated divisions among local communities. By 2012, the Bashali Chiefdom had become a bastion for the Alliance des Patriotes pour un Congo Libre et Souverain (APCLS), a group that emerged in the region with the intention of protecting indigenous populations from Tutsi-led rebel factions. In April of that year, the APCLS engaged in combat with FARDC in

19584-540: The withdrawal of M23 rebels from their deployment areas sparked controversy. KDF troops deployed in Rumangabo while the rebels were still present, and Ugandan troops, whose authorities had declared they did not want to cohabit with the rebels, continued to camp in the Kibaya of Bunagana, on the Ugandan side, awaiting the rebels' withdrawal from the Bunagana-Rutshuru-Kiwanja axis. Meanwhile, Burundian troops deployed on

19728-892: The world, and important to try preventing aggressors benefiting from conflict. However, without a clear understanding of each local context, full restitution rights can be unworkable and fail to protect the people it is designed to protect for the following reasons, refugees and IDPs: Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute stress the need for humanitarian organization to develop greater expertise in these issues, using experts who have knowledge in both humanitarian and land and property issues and so provide better advice to state actors seeking to resolve these issues. The ODI calls on humanitarian agencies to develop an awareness of sustainable reintegration as part of their emphasis on returning IDPs and refugees home. Legal advice needs to be provided to all parties involved even if

19872-505: The worldwide protection of refugees and the resolution of refugee problems.... guided by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol." The UNHCR has traditionally argued that it does not have an exclusive mandate for IDPs even though at least since 1972 it had relief and rehabilitation programs for those displaced within a country. Until the mid-2000s, it conditioned involvement to cases where there

20016-439: The year, and may include individuals who have been displaced more than once. The total number of IDPs is a snapshot of all the people living in internal displacements at the end of the year, and is the sum of the number of conflict IDPs and disaster IDPs. The problem of protecting and assisting IDPs is not a new issue. In international law it is the responsibility of the government concerned to provide assistance and protection for

20160-604: Was an attempt to fix the problem by giving sectoral responsibilities to different humanitarian agencies, most notably with the UNHCR taking on the responsibility for the protection and the management of camps and emergency shelters. The Forced Migration Review stated that the "abnegation of responsibility is possible because there is no formal responsibility apportioned to agencies under the Collaborative Response, and thus no accountability when agencies renege on their promises." Similarly, research on refugees has suggested

20304-482: Was further compounded by spontaneous migrations of populations fleeing famine in Rwanda . In 1940, the colonial administration instituted the Gishari Chiefdom exclusively for the transplanted Banyarwanda populace, which engendered a distinct administrative enclave. This maneuver sparked initial conflicts between the Banyarwanda and indigenous traditional chiefs over the governance of the Gishari enclave. Nonetheless, in 1957,

20448-718: Was part of a package of reforms accepted by the IASC in December 2005 and subsequently applied in eight chronic humanitarian crises and six sudden-onset emergencies. However, the reform was originally rolled out and evaluated in four countries: DRC, Liberia, Somalia and Uganda. The clusters were originally concentrated in nine areas: IASC Principles deemed it unnecessary to apply the cluster approach to four sectors where no significant gaps were detected: a) food, led by WFP; b) refugees, led by UNHCR; c) education, led by UNICEF; and d) agriculture, led by FAO. The original nine clusters were later expanded to include agriculture and education. Unlike

20592-526: Was sparked by years of ethnic tensions between the Banyarwandan people (Hutu and Tutsi people who originated from that area as well), who had significant influence and power in North Kivu and surrounding provinces, and native groups such as the Hunde and Nande groups. In the 1930s, the Belgian colonial administration in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda established a system of encouraging Ruandan immigration to

20736-442: Was traditionally inhabited by the Hunde people . During Belgian colonial rule, the Hunde community was reorganized into autonomous entities governed by traditional chiefs who enforced colonial statutes. This form of localized governance provided a facade of autonomy while ensuring the execution of authoritarian colonial mandates. In the 1930s, the Belgian colonial administration orchestrated a substantial migratory labor movement from

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