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87-530: The bay takes its name from the Spanish novel Don Quixote , in which the insula Barataria , or Barataria island, appears as a fictional territory governed by Sancho Panza . The bay is indented and marshy, with many islands. The surrounding low-lying Barataria country, south of New Orleans and west of the Mississippi River Delta , is noted for its shrimp industry (based at villages built on pilings above

174-427: A 20-to-100-foot (6.1 to 30.5 m) oil and gas geyser. The geyser was brought under control and the wellhead was repaired and capped on 1 August 2010, five days after the collision. 29°22′27″N 89°56′17″W  /  29.37411°N 89.93813°W  / 29.37411; -89.93813 Spanish literature#Baroque Spanish literature is literature ( Spanish poetry , prose , and drama) written in

261-502: A Dios, preguntándole por qué se pudre lentamente mi alma, por qué se pudren más de un millón de cadáveres en esta ciudad de Madrid, por qué mil millones de cadáveres se pudren lentamente en el mundo. Dime, ¿qué huerto quieres abonar con nuestra podredumbre? ¿Temes que se te sequen los grandes rosales del día, las tristes azucenas letales de tus noches? Poems by José Hierro , Blas de Otero , and Gabriel Celaya were more direct, penning poems with such transparent titles as Canto

348-571: A España (Hierro), A la inmensa mayoría (Otero), or La poesía es un arma cargada de futuro (Celaya). Baltasar Graci%C3%A1n Baltasar Gracián y Morales , S.J. ( Spanish: [baltaˈsaɾ ɣɾaˈθjan] ; 8 January 1601 – 6 December 1658), better known as Baltasar Gracián , was a Spanish Jesuit priest and Baroque prose writer and philosopher . He was born in Belmonte , near Calatayud ( Aragón ). His writings were lauded by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche . The son of

435-478: A devastating impact on Spanish writing. Among the handful of civil war poets and writers, Miguel Hernández stands out. During the early dictatorship (1939–1955), literature followed dictator Francisco Franco 's reactionary vision of a second, Catholic Spanish golden age. By the mid-1950s, just as with the novel, a new generation which had only experienced the Spanish Civil War in childhood was coming of age. By

522-521: A devastating impact on the trajectory of Spanish letters. In July 1936, Spain was at the height of its Silver Age. Every major writer of the three major generations—1898, 1914, and 1927—was still alive and productive. Those of 1914 and 1927 were at the height or just reaching the height of their literary powers. Several were recognized among Western civilization's most talented and influential writers. But by April 1939, Miguel de Unamuno, Antonio Machado, and Federico García Lorca, among others, were dead. All but

609-659: A doctor, in his childhood Gracián lived with his uncle, who was a priest . He studied at a Jesuit school in 1621 and 1623 and theology in Zaragoza. He was ordained in 1627 and took his final vows in 1635. He assumed the vows of the Jesuits in 1633 and dedicated himself to teaching in various Jesuit schools. He spent time in Huesca , where he befriended the local scholar Vincencio Juan de Lastanosa , who helped him achieve an important milestone in his intellectual upbringing. He acquired fame as

696-682: A general cultural crisis in Spain. The "Disaster" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of "Regeneracionismo". For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno , Pío Baroja , and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán , Antonio Machado , Ramiro de Maeztu , and Ángel Ganivet , came to be known as

783-540: A greater sense of distance and objectivity. These writers had enjoyed more formal academic training than their predecessors, many taught within the walls of academia, and one, Azaña, was to become President and face of the Second Republic. Their genre of choice were the essay and the article, their arguments more systematic, and their tastes, more European. In contrast to Unamuno's existential obsessions or Machado's conceptual, earth-bound verse, Juan Ramón's poetry pursued

870-616: A long voyage to the Isle of Immortality, travelling the long and prickly road of life. In the first part, "En la primavera de la niñez" ("In the Spring of Childhood"), they join the royal court, where they suffer all manner of disappointments; in the second part, "En el otoño de la varonil edad" ("In the Autumn of the Age of Manliness"), they pass through Aragon , where they visit the house of Salastano (an anagram of

957-659: A martyr to the Republican cause but this time as a post-war prisoner, fighting and writing as a soldier poet throughout the war and then languishing and dying in one of Franco's prisons in 1942. Among his important works, Perito en lunas (1933) from his pre-war surrealist days and Viento del pueblo (1937), evidence of the work of a soldier-poet, stand out. The earliest years of the post-war were characterized more by hunger, repression, and suffering than by any significant literature. The published works of this period were true to pseudo-fascist dictator Francisco Franco's reactionary vision of

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1044-510: A more esoteric version of beauty and truth above all, while still manifesting an internalized sense of the existential dilemmas that plagued intellectuals in the first half of the twentieth century. Juan Ramón was Spain's great modernist poet and the maestro of the coming vanguardist Generation of 1927. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. José Ortega y Gasset became the spokesman for this and essential every generation of writers in

1131-442: A new type of prose named the verbal portrait. This form is demonstrated by Pulgar's work Claros varones de Castilla in which he represents the detailed lives of twenty-four distinguished contemporaries. He explores their moral and psychological natures as well as physical traits. Pulgar was the official historian of the monarchs Fernando and Isabel, the famous Catholic Monarchs of Spain. This position gave him close encounters with

1218-525: A preacher, although some of his oratorical displays, such as reading a letter sent from Hell from the pulpit, were frowned upon by his superiors. He was named Rector of the Jesuit College of Tarragona and wrote works proposing models for courtly conduct such as El héroe ( The Hero ), El político ( The Politician ), and El discreto ( The Discreet One ). During the Catalan Revolt , he was chaplain for

1305-515: A prominent place for themselves within the Spanish cultural field. The Roman conquest and occupation of the peninsula, spanning from the 3rd century BCE to the 5h century CE, brought a fully developed Latin culture to Spanish territories. While the invasion of Germanic tribes in the fifth century CE put an end to Roman Spain, the tribes’ relative lack of advanced culture, including any kind of literary tradition, meant that any written literature produced in

1392-501: A real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life. The poet, name unknown, wrote the epic in about 1140 and Cid supposedly died forty years before in 1099. This epic represents realism, because nothing was exaggerated and the details are very real, even the geography correctly portrays the areas in which Cid traveled and lived. Unlike other European epics, the poem is not idealized and there is no presence of supernatural beings. It has assonance instead of rhyme and its lines vary in length,

1479-688: A second Spanish golden age than to the material and existential anguish facing the majority of the country's population of the time. Neo-baroque poetry and paeans to Franco's Spain satisfied the censors but has enjoyed no subsequent critical shelf-life. Ironically, the narrative production of one of Franco's censors would provide the first sign of literary revival in post-war Spain. In 1942, Camilo José Cela 's novel, La familia de Pascual Duarte , used just enough experimental arrangement (temporally disjointed narrative development to problematize simple accusations of political cause-effect critique; prefaces and post-scripts that confuse authorial intentions) to avoid

1566-417: A sense of deep malaise at the social injustice, political bungling, and cultural indifference evident in contemporary Spanish society. Within a matter of years, these young authors had transformed their nation’s literary landscape. To be sure, established nineteenth century realists, such as Benito Pérez Galdós, continued to write novels and theater into the second decade of the twentieth century, and, again in

1653-531: A small handful of the remaining writers had fled into exile, dispersed across the length of the American continent, most never to enjoy the close associations of conferences, tertulias, and theater premiers that had so often united them in pre-war Madrid. Among the handful of civil war poets and writers, Miguel Hernández stands out. A young disciple and associate of the Generation of 1898, Hernández, like Lorca, became

1740-807: A social realist tradition that was as celebrated as it was short-lived. Spanish poetry experienced renewal along similar lines. Dámaso Alonso 's poem, "Insomnia" (1947) captures much of the angst and sense of violence that informed the works of Cela et al. and that would infuse the Spanish poetry of the era: Madrid es una ciudad de más de un millón de cadáveres (según las últimas estadísticas). A veces en la noche yo me revuelvo y me incorporo en este nicho en el que hace 45 años que me pudro, y paso largas horas oyendo gemir al huracán, o ladrar los perros, o fluir blandamente la luz de la luna. Y paso largas horas gimiendo como el huracán, ladrando como un perro enfurecido, fluyendo como la leche de la ubre caliente de una gran vaca amarilla. Y paso largas horas preguntándole

1827-716: A universal manner (all things come to an end). He is still considered a poet of the Middle Ages in that he finds peace and finality in religion. The 15th century may be thought of as a pre-Renaissance period. Literary production increases greatly. Outstanding poets of this century include Juan de Mena and Íñigo López de Mendoza (Marquess of Santillana). Spanish literature of the Middle Ages concludes with La Celestina by Fernando de Rojas . Important Renaissance themes are poetry, with Garcilaso de la Vega and Juan Boscán ; religious literature, with Fray Luis de León , San Juan de la Cruz , and Santa Teresa de Jesús ; and prose, with

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1914-758: A younger group of writers—mostly poets—began publishing works that from their beginnings revealed the extent to which younger artists were absorbing the literary experimentation of the writers of 1898 and 1914. Poets Pedro Salinas , Jorge Guillén , Federico García Lorca , Vicente Aleixandre , Dámaso Alonso , Rafael Alberti , Luis Cernuda , Manuel Altolaguirre were likewise the most closely tied to formal academia yet. Novelists such as Benjamín Jarnés , Rosa Chacel , Francisco Ayala , and Ramón J. Sender were equally experimental and academic. Many of this generation were full-time university professors, while others spent periods as guest teachers and students. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of

2001-421: A “generation", contemporary critics and later literary historians were to catalogue and then interpret the arrival of new batches of authors in such generational terms for nearly the next one hundred years. Certainly, the terminology possesses a certain organizational elegance and indeed, recognizes the significant impact of major political and cultural events on changing literary expressions and tastes (for example,

2088-500: Is a frame story or short stories within an overall story. In this work, the Conde Lucanor seeks advice from his wise counselor, Patronio, who gives the advice through the telling of stories. Juan Manuel also wrote lesser-known works such as El libro de los estados on the social classes and El libro del caballero y escudero on philosophical discussions. Toward the end of the Middle Ages, writer Fernando del Pulgar (1436-1490?) created

2175-512: Is an important branch of Spanish literature, with its own particular characteristics dating back to the earliest years of Spain’s conquest of the Americas (see Latin American literature ). The Roman conquest and occupation of the Iberian Peninsula beginning in the 3rd century BC brought a Latin culture to Spanish territories. The Muslim conquest in 711 CE brought the cultures of West Asia and

2262-587: Is characterized by the following points: In the Enlightenment of the 18th century, with the arrival of "the lights" to Spain, important topics are the prose of Fray Benito Jerónimo Feijoo , Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , and José Cadalso ; the lyric of the Salmantine school (with Juan Meléndez Valdés ), the lyric of the Madrilenian group (with the story-tellers Tomás de Iriarte and Félix María Samaniego ), and

2349-524: Is the author's masterpiece and one of the great works of the Siglo de Oro . It is a lengthy allegorical novel with philosophical overtones. It recalls the Byzantine style of novel in its many vicissitudes and in the numerous adventures to which the characters are subjected, as well as the picaresque novel in its satirical take on society, as evidenced in the long pilgrimage undertaken by the main characters: Critilo,

2436-805: The Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia (literally Manual Oracle and Art of Discretion , commonly translated as The Art of Worldly Wisdom ), which is almost entirely composed of three hundred maxims with commentary. He constantly plays with words: each phrase becomes a puzzle, using the most diverse rhetorical devices. Its appeal has endured: in 1992, Christopher Maurer's translation of this book remained 18 weeks (2 weeks in first place) in The Washington Post ' s list of Nonfiction General Best Sellers. It has sold nearly 200,000 copies. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica wrote of Gracián that: "He has been excessively praised by Schopenhauer , whose appreciation of

2523-565: The Arcipreste de Hita is an outstanding lyricist of the fourteenth century. His only work, Libro de buen amor is a framework tale in which he includes translations from Ovid, satires, little poems called serranillas , twenty-nine fables, a sermon on Christian armor, and many lyric poems that praise the Virgin Mary. Poet Íñigo López de Mendoza, the Marqués de Santillana (1398–1458), begins to show

2610-443: The Enlightenment era of the 18th century, notable works include the prose of Feijoo , Jovellanos , and Cadalso ; the lyric of Juan Meléndez Valdés , Tomás de Iriarte and Félix María Samaniego ), and the theater, with Leandro Fernández de Moratín , Ramón de la Cruz , and Vicente García de la Huerta . In Romanticism (beginning of the 19th century) important topics are: the poetry of José de Espronceda and other poets; prose;

2697-453: The Mester de Clerecía became popular in the thirteenth century. It is the verse form of the learned poets, usually clerics (hence the name 'clerecía'). The poetry was formal, with carefully counted syllables in each line. Popular themes were Christian legends, lives of saints and tales from classical antiquity. The poems were recited to villagers in public plazas. Two traits separate this form from

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2784-454: The Poema del Cid (El Cantar de mío Cid) (1140 CE) in the history of Spanish literature, they cannot be seen as a precursor to Spain's great epic poem. What the discovery of the jarchas makes clear instead is that from its origins, the literature of Spain has arisen out of and born witness to a rich, heterogeneous mix of cultures and languages. The epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about

2871-509: The Spanish language within the territory that presently constitutes the Kingdom of Spain . Its development coincides and frequently intersects with that of other literary traditions from regions within the same territory, particularly Catalan literature, Galician intersects as well with Latin, Jewish, and Arabic literary traditions of the Iberian Peninsula . The literature of Spanish America

2958-553: The muwashah , maqama , and nawba . Important works include Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd , Hayy ibn Yaqdhan , The Incoherence of the Incoherence , and Hadith Bayad wa Riyad . The earliest recorded examples of a vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides , Averroes , and others worked. The Jarchas , dating from

3045-518: The " Generation of 98 ". The label from its outset was controversial and even Azorín, the source of its origin, came to reject it. Nevertheless, it stuck as a way to describe a group of writers who turned in content from the more general exploration of universal middle class values characteristic of Nineteenth Century Realism to an obsession with questions of a more national nature. Their articles, essays, poems, and novels exploring Spanish history and geography carried existential overtones, expressing overall

3132-487: The "critical man" who personifies disillusionment, and Andrenio, the "natural man" who represents innocence and primitive impulses. The author constantly exhibits a perspectivist technique that unfolds according to the criteria or points of view of both characters, but in an antithetical rather than plural way as in Miguel de Cervantes . The novel reveals a philosophy, pessimism , with which one of its greatest readers and admirers,

3219-601: The 1898 connection, or a 1927 literary celebration that briefly united nearly every major vanguard poet in Spain). The next supposed “generation" of Spanish writers following those of ´98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset —a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within

3306-461: The 19th century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer , identified. The following is a summary of the El criticón , reduced almost to the point of a sketch, of a complex work that demands detailed study. Critilo, man of the world, is shipwrecked on the coast of the island of Santa Elena, where he meets Andrenio, the natural man, who has grown up completely ignorant of civilization. Together they undertake

3393-586: The 9th to the 12th centuries C.E., were short poems spoken in local colloquial Hispano-Romance dialects, known as Mozarabic , but written in Arabic script. The Jarchas appeared at the end of longer poetry written in Arabic or Hebrew known as muwashshah , which were lengthy glosses on the ideas expressed in the jarchas. Typically spoken in the voice of a woman, the jarchas express the anxieties of love, particularly of its loss. This combination of Hispano-Romance expression with Arabic script, only discovered in 1948, locates

3480-429: The Iberian Peninsula continued along Romanized lines. Outstanding amongst the works produced is Saint Isidore of Seville’s ( c.  560–636 ) Etymologiae , an attempted summa of all classical knowledge. Called “the last scholar of the ancient world", St. Isidore penned theological and proto-scientific treatises, letters, and a series of histories that would serve as models for the rest of Western Europe throughout

3567-422: The Isle of Immortality. He is intelligent and contributed greatly to the world. One of his most famous phrases is "Respect yourself if you would have others respect you." Gracián's style, generically called conceptism , is characterized by ellipsis and the concentration of a maximum of significance in a minimum of form, an approach referred to in Spanish as agudeza (wit), and which is brought to its extreme in

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3654-530: The Middle Ages includes popular poems and the courtly poetry of the nobles. During the 15th century the pre-Renaissance occurred and literary production increased greatly. In the Renaissance important topics were poetry, religious literature, and prose. In the 16th century the first Spanish novels appeared, Lazarillo de Tormes and Guzmán de Alfarache . In the Baroque era of the 17th century important works were

3741-638: The Middle Ages. The arrival of Muslim invaders in 711 CE brought the cultures of the Middle and Far East to the Iberian Peninsula and ultimately to all of Europe. During the era of relative religious tolerance that followed, writers such as the Jewish theologian Maimonides (1135–1204) or the Muslim polymath (1126–1198) Averroes penned works of theology, science, philosophy, and mathematics that would have lasting impacts on Hebrew and Muslim philosophy and prove essential to

3828-467: The North Africa to the peninsula, creating Andalusi literary traditions . In medieval Spanish literature , the earliest recorded examples of a vernacular Romance-based literature mix Muslim, Jewish, and Christian culture. One of the notable works is the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid , composed some time between 1140 and 1207. Spanish prose gained popularity in the mid-thirteenth century. Lyric poetry in

3915-624: The Spanish army that lifted the French siege of Lleida (Lérida) in 1646. In 1651, he published the first part of the El Criticón without the permission of his superiors, whom he disobeyed repeatedly. That attracted the Society's displeasure. Ignoring the reprimands, he published the second part of Criticón in 1657 and so he was sanctioned and exiled to Graus in early 1658. Soon, Gracián wrote to apply for membership in another religious order. His demand

4002-425: The Spanish cultural field. Leading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez , the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal , Gregorio Marañón , Manuel Azaña , Eugenio d'Ors , and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró , Ramón Pérez de Ayala , and Ramón Gómez de la Serna . While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of ´98, they approached these topics with

4089-474: The anonymous El Lazarillo de Tormes . Among the principal features of the Renaissance were the revival of learning based on classical sources, the rise of courtly patronage, the development of perspective in painting, and advances in science. The most important characteristics of the Renaissance are: In the Baroque of the 17th century important topics are the prose of Francisco de Quevedo and Baltasar Gracián ;

4176-453: The arrival of Spain's Second Republic in 1931, the Generation's poets reached the apex of their experimental writings, manifesting a clear awareness of the international vanguard “—isms" sweeping major Western capitals of the day. After 1931, the Generation's writing increasingly displays the imprint of the political and social stresses that would lead to Spain's bloody civil war. The Spanish Civil War , lasting from July 1936 to April 1939, had

4263-414: The author induced him to translate his works into German, and he has also been praised by Ticknor and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, led by his systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories". Nietzsche wrote of El Discreto , "Europe has never produced anything finer or more complicated in matters of moral subtlety," and Schopenhauer, who translated it into German, considered

4350-561: The awe experienced in confronting the sublimity of nature. It elevated folk art, nature and custom. The characteristics of the works of Romanticism are: Various are the themes of the romanticist works: In Realism (end of the 19th century), which is mixed with Naturalism , important topics are the novel, with Juan Valera , José María de Pereda , Benito Pérez Galdós , Emilia Pardo Bazán , Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) , Armando Palacio Valdés , and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez ; poetry, with Ramón de Campoamor , Gaspar Núñez de Arce , and other poets;

4437-464: The bloodless coup of 1868 and that would come to a tragic end with the outbreak of civil war in July 1936. The writing of this supposed generation can be roughly divided into three moments. In their early years their work arises still out of mostly local and national traditions, culminating in their united celebration of the tri-centennial of the death of Golden Age poet Luis de Góngora . From mid decade until

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4524-456: The book "Absolutely unique... a book made for constant use... a companion for life" for "those who wish to prosper in the great world." The English translation of Oráculo manual by Joseph Jacobs (London: Macmillan and Co., Limited), first published in 1892, was a huge commercial success, with many reprintings over the years (most recently by Shambala). Jacobs's translation is alleged to have been read by Winston Churchill , seven years later, on

4611-461: The case of Galdós, were much admired by the new generation of writers. Nevertheless, with the novels of Unamuno, Azorín, Pío Baroja, and Valle Inclán, the theater of the latter, and the poetry of Antonio Machado and Unamuno, a definitive literary shift had taken place—a shift in both form and content—pointing towards the more celebrated experimental writings of Spain's vanguard writers of the 1920s. Thanks to Azorín's designation of his fellow writers as

4698-520: The causes of the decadence of Spain as a nation between the 19th and the 20th century is called Regenerationism. It expresses a pessimist judgement about Spain. The regenerationist intellectuals divulgated their studies in journals with a big diffusion, so the movement expanded. Some important Modernist authors are Salvador Rueda , Juan Ramón Jiménez , Miguel de Unamuno and Rubén Darío . The destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by U.S. gunboats in 1898 provoked

4785-602: The censors´ cuts and to present to discerning Spanish readers an exposé of a spiritually troubled, socially impoverished, and structurally violent society. Cela was to remain for the next five decades as one of Spain's most important novelists, eventually receiving the Nobel Prize for literature in 1989. With the 1945 publication of the Nadal Prize winning Nada by Carmen Laforet and the 1947 release of Miguel Delibes 's La sombra del ciprés es alargada , readers of intelligent Spanish narrative at last had cause for hope. While

4872-479: The characters in this book, making the work realistic and detailed. Lyric poetry in the Middle Ages can be divided into three groups: the jarchas, the popular poems originating from folk-songs sung by commoners, and the courtly poetry of the nobles. Alfonso X of Castile fits into the third group with his series of three hundred poems, written in Galician: Las cantigas de Santa María. Another poet, Juan Ruiz, or

4959-655: The coastal marshes), muskrat trapping, natural gas wells, oil wells, and sulfur production. Its inlet is connected to the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway system. Barataria Bay was used in the early 19th century as the base of pirates , privateers , and smugglers led by the pirate Jean Lafitte . They were referred to as the Baratarians . Today the bay is a notable source of shrimp and sulfur , as well as of muskrat fur , natural gas , and petroleum . Until Hurricane Betsy made landfall in 1965, Barataria Bay

5046-524: The early 1960s, Spanish authors moved towards a restless literary experimentation. When Franco died in 1975, the important work of establishing democracy had an immediate impact on Spanish letters. Over the next several years a wealth of young new writers, among them Juan José Millás , Rosa Montero , Javier Marías , Luis Mateo Díez , José María Merino , Félix de Azúa , Cristina Fernández Cubas , Enrique Vila-Matas , Carme Riera , and later Antonio Muñoz Molina and Almudena Grandes , would begin carving out

5133-478: The early models laid down by Cela and Laforet. Equally influenced by the films of the Italian neorealists, novelists such as Luis Romero ( La noria , 1951), Rafael Sánchez Ferlosio ( El jarama , 1956), Jesús Fernández Santos ( Los bravos , 1956), Carmen Martín Gaite ( Entre visillos , 1957), Ignacio Aldecoa ( El fulgor y la sangre , 1954), and Juan Goytisolo ( Juegos de manos , 1954) produced

5220-570: The first half of the twentieth century. In essays like “Meditations on the Quijote," “The Rebellion of the Masses," and most famously, “The Dehumanization of Art," Ortega laid out theories of art and society that lucidly explained and celebrated twentieth century vanguard experimentation while holding fast to an elitist social vision whose eclipse this art ironically expressed. The most elusive voice of this generation, and arguably, unclassifiable within this group

5307-434: The first modern book of laws of the land written in the people's language. Another work was La primera crónica general which accounted for the history of Spain from the creation until the end of Alfonso's father's reign, San Fernando. For his direction of these works and many others he directed, Alfonso X is called the father of Spanish prose. His nephew, Don Juan Manuel is famous for his prose work El Conde Lucanor which

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5394-545: The flowering of the European Renaissance centuries later. While none of their works can be considered direct ancestors of a Spanish literary tradition, it was out of the cultural milieu fostered by such intellectual energy that the first written manifestations of a Spanish literature proper arise. The period of Islamic rule in Iberia from 711 to 1492 brought many new literary traditions to Spain. Most literature at this time

5481-402: The fresh, joyful experimentation of Spain's "Silver Age" writers had disappeared, Cela, Laforet, and Delibes at least showed a renewed commitment to a kind of writing that first, was connected to Spain's material reality, and second, would stretch itself aesthetically in its attempts to capture the experience. By the middle of the next decade, a whole new generation of novelists was latching onto

5568-432: The impact of the calls of “Regeneracionistas" and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards. This group of poets continues to be, without contest, the most celebrated and studied of Spain's twentieth century writers. Their work provides a capstone to what some have called the “Silver Age" of Spanish Letters, a period that began with the veritable explosion of novel production following

5655-547: The latter romanticism (post-romanticism) some appear: Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro . Some anti-romantic poets are Ramón de Campoamor and Gaspar Núñez de Arce . In part a revolt against aristocratic, social, and political norms of the Enlightenment period and a reaction against the rationalization of nature, in art and literature Romanticism stressed strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as trepidation, horror, and

5742-513: The lyric of the Sevillian school; and also the theater, with Leandro Fernández de Moratín , Ramón de la Cruz and Vicente García de la Huerta . Enlightenment thinkers sought to apply systematic thinking to all forms of human activity, carrying it to the ethical and governmental spheres in exploration of the individual, society and the state. Three phases in the Spanish literature of the 18th century are distinguished: Early Romanticism appeared with

5829-424: The mester de juglaría: didacticism and erudition. Gonzalo de Berceo was one of the greatest advocates of this school, writing on religious subjects. Spanish prose gained popularity in the mid-thirteenth century when King Alfonso X of Castile gave support and recognition to the writing form. He, with the help of his groups of intellectuals, directed the composition of many prose works including Las siete partidas,

5916-501: The most common length being fourteen syllables . This type of verse is known as mester de juglaria (verse form of the minstrels). The epic is divided into three parts, also known as cantos. Medieval Spanish poets recognized the Mester de Juglaría as a literary form written by the minstrels (juglares) and composed of varying line length and use of assonance instead of rhyme. These poems were sung to uneducated audiences, nobles and peasants alike. This Castilian narrative poetry known as

6003-462: The movement away from the traditions of the Middle Ages. He shows a knowledge of Latin authors and familiarity with the works of Dante and Petrarch . Mendoza was also the first to introduce the sonnet into Spanish literature. The last great poet of the Middle Ages is Jorge Manrique . He is famous for his work which laments the death of his father, Coplas a la muerte de su padre . In this piece, Manrique shows classical feelings by expressing himself in

6090-495: The name of Gracián's friend Lastanosa), and travel to France, which the author calls the "wasteland of Hipocrinda", populated entirely by hypocrites and dunces, ending with a visit to a house of lunatics. In the third part, "En el invierno de la vejez" ("In the Winter of Old Age"), they arrive in Rome, where they encounter an academy where they meet the most inventive of men, arriving finally at

6177-515: The novelists Gabriel Miró , Ramón Pérez de Ayala , and Ramón Gómez de la Serna . Around 1920 a younger group of writers—mostly poets—began publishing works that from their beginnings revealed the extent to which younger artists were absorbing the literary experimentation of the writers of 1898 and 1914. Poets were closely tied to formal academia. Novelists such as Benjamín Jarnés , Rosa Chacel , Francisco Ayala , and Ramón J. Sender were equally experimental and academic. The Spanish Civil War had

6264-404: The prose of Francisco de Quevedo and Baltasar Gracián . A notable author was Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra , famous for his masterpiece Don Quixote de la Mancha . In this novel Cervantes consolidated the form of literature that the picaresque novel had established in Spain to a fictional narrative that became the template for many novelists throughout the history of Spanish literature. In

6351-572: The rise of a Spanish literary tradition in the cultural heterogeneity that characterized Medieval Spanish society and politics. However, the Mozarabic language of the Jarchas appears to be a separate Romance language whose evolution from Vulgar Latin paralleled that of Castilian Spanish rather than deriving from or fusing into the latter. Hence, while the relatively recent discovery of the Jarchas challenges pride of chronological place that belonged for so long to

6438-539: The ship taking him to the Boer Wars. In Paris, in 1924, a revision and reprint of the translation into French by Abraham Nicolas Amelot de La Houssaye , with a preface by André Rouveyre , attracted a wide readership there, and was admired by André Gide . A new translation by Christopher Maurer (New York: Doubleday) became a national bestseller in the U.S. in 1992 [1] , and the English edition, which sold almost 200,000 copies,

6525-440: The singular figure of Manuel José Quintana . In Romanticism (beginning of the 19th century) important topics are: the poetry of José de Espronceda and other poets; prose, which can have several forms (the historical novel, scientific prose, the description of regional customs, journalism —where Mariano José de Larra can be mentioned—; the theater, with Ángel de Saavedra (Duke of Rivas), José Zorrilla , and other authors. In

6612-518: The theater is notable ( Lope de Vega , Pedro Calderón de la Barca , and Tirso de Molina ); and poetry with Luis de Góngora (who is a Culteranist ) and Francisco de Quevedo (who is a Conceptist ). In the works of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra notable novels are La Galatea and Don Quixote de la Mancha . The Baroque style used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music. The Baroque

6699-488: The theater, with José Echegaray , Manuel Tamayo y Baus , and other dramatists; and the literary critics, emphasizing Menéndez Pelayo . In Modernism several currents appear: Parnasianism , Symbolism , Futurism , and Creationism . The destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by the U.S. in 1898 provoked a crisis in Spain. A group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno , Pío Baroja , and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), made changes to literature's form and content. By

6786-589: The theater, with José Echegaray , Manuel Tamayo y Baus , and other dramatists; and the literary critics, emphasizing Menéndez Pelayo . Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general "Realism," Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation. The realistic works of this period are characterized by: In Modernism several currents appear: Parnassianism , Symbolism , Futurism , and Creationism . Literary Modernism in Spain

6873-438: The theater, with Ángel de Saavedra (Duke of Rivas), José Zorrilla , and other authors. In Realism (end of the 19th century), which is mixed with Naturalism, important topics are the novel, with Juan Valera , José María de Pereda , Benito Pérez Galdós , Emilia Pardo Bazán , Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) , Armando Palacio Valdés , and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez ; poetry, with Ramón de Campoamor , Gaspar Núñez de Arce , and other poets;

6960-454: The year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset —a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field. Leading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez , the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal , Gregorio Marañón , Manuel Azaña , Eugenio d'Ors , and Ortega y Gasset, and

7047-473: Was home to Manila Village . Barataria Bay along with Biloxi Marsh, Pointe-au-Chien and Adam’s Bay since 2014 have been part of an oyster shell recycling program to build reefs and protect against erosion and create marine habitats. On 27 July 2010, the tugboat Pere Ana C. struck an abandoned wellhead owned by Houston-based Cedyco Corp, while pulling a barge near Bayou St. Denis in Barataria Bay, causing

7134-467: Was influenced by the " disaster of '98 ", Regenerationism, and the Free Institution of Education (founded by Giner de los Ríos ). Modernism was rooted in the idea that "traditional" forms of art, literature, religious faith, social organization, and daily life had become outdated; therefore it was essential to sweep them aside. The intellectual movement that thinks objectively and scientifically about

7221-558: Was not met, but his sanction was reduced. In April 1658, he was sent to several minor positions under the college of Tarazona . His physical decline prevented him from attending the provincial congregation of Calatayud and on 6 December 1658 Gracián died in Tarazona, near Zaragoza in the Kingdom of Aragón . Gracián is the most representative writer of the Spanish Baroque literary style known as Conceptismo (Conceptism), of which he

7308-614: Was produced in standard Arabic, though poetry and other forms of literature of the Jewish golden age found expression in Judeo-Arabic or Hebrew . Maimonides , for example, wrote his magnum opus The Guide for the Perplexed in Arabic with Hebrew script . Other major literary figures of the time include Ibn Arabi , Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad , Ibn al-Khatib , Ibn Zaydún and Hafsa Bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya . Important literary styles include

7395-762: Was the most important theoretician; his Agudeza y arte de ingenio ( Wit and the Art of Inventiveness ) is at once a poetic , a rhetoric and an anthology of the conceptist style. In 1985, the Aragonese village in which he was born, Belmonte de Calatayud (Belmonte del Río Perejiles) officially changed its name to Belmonte de Gracián in his honour. The three parts of the El Criticón , published in 1651, 1653 and 1657, achieved fame in Europe, especially in German-speaking countries. It

7482-452: Was the novelist Ramón Gómez de la Serna who carried the narrative experiments of Unamuno and Valle Inclán to absurd extremes, such as in his 1923 novel, El novelista , where varieties of plays with narrative subjectivity result in chapters envisioned through the eyes and voice of street lamps. More approachable and enduring are Gómez de la Serna's “Greguerías," an original form of aphorism that he described as “humor plus metaphor." Around 1920

7569-432: Was translated into Finnish, Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and many other languages. The only publication which bears Gracián's name is El Comulgatorio (1655); his more important books were issued under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracián (a supposed brother of the writer) or under the anagram of Gracía de Marlones. Gracián was punished for publishing without his superior's permission El Criticón , but no objection

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