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143-579: The Khurasanid dynasty was founded during the 11th century. In 1057, the Zirid dynasty sultan Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis abandoned his capital at Kairouan and retreated to Mahdia on the coast. In doing so, he left both Kairouan and Tunis to local leaders. According to Ibn Khaldun , Tunis was then raided by the Banu Hilal (the Arab tribes that had recently arrived in the region) and the inhabitants banished their own governor,

286-539: A Kufic inscription dedicated to al-Mu'izz. Zirid art is also known for its decorated manuscripts. This art form flourished in Kairouan under Zirid rule and manuscripts from this city were exported throughout the Islamic world. One important example is the so-called "Nurse's Qur'an" (Arabic: مصحف الحاضنة , romanized:  Mushaf al-Hadina ), a Qur'an manuscript copied in 1020 by 'Ali ibn Ahmad al-Warraq for Fatima,

429-709: A punitive expedition , the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers . The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties , because the technological advantage of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at naval warfare . Following the conquest under the July monarchy , France referred to the Algerian territories as "French possessions in North Africa". This was disputed by

572-463: A Sanhaja Berber leader. Abd al-Haqq ruled a de facto independent principality that would be governed by his family for almost a century. He ruled with the title of shaykh only and with the assistance of a council of shaykh s, the mashyakha , which was probably composed of the city's elites. He made peace with the Banu Hilal by negotiating an agreement that included regular tribute payments to

715-541: A base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean basin. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates . He also ordered a large-scale attack on Algiers between 1682 and 1683 on the pretext of assisting and rescuing enslaved Christians, usually Europeans taken as captives in raids. Again, Jean II d'Estrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited

858-456: A favorable peace treaty the next year. The treaty of Tafna gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying Constantine . Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed

1001-631: A fleet of 400 ships to the island in response to the Byzantines reconquering Calabria (in southern Italy) from the Muslims, but the fleet was lost in a powerful storm off the coast of Pantelleria . In 1036, the Muslim population of the island request aid from al-Mu'izz to overthrow the Kalbid emir Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf al-Akḥal  [ it ] , whose rule they considered flawed and unjust. The request also contained

1144-459: A mercenary named Qahrun ibn Ghannush, for his incompetent administration. In search of protection and leadership, the city turned for help to the emir of the Hammadid dynasty , al-Nasir , and requested that he appoint a governor. Initially, al-Nasir allowed the local Tunisian elites to propose a candidate, but ultimately he declined their selection and appointed Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan,

1287-568: A mixed system of "total domination and total colonization" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities. Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of Algeria a genocide . For example, Ben Kiernan , an Australian expert on Cambodian genocide wrote in Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur on

1430-486: A move deeply unpopular by the French colonists. As a recognized jurisdiction of France, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants. They were first known as colons , and later as pieds-noirs , a term applied primarily to ethnic Europeans born in Algeria. The indigenous Muslim population comprised the majority of the territory throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among

1573-571: A mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the Prophet ), but is more commonly known as Sherif Boubaghla . He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir Abdelkader , defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing guerrilla tactics. Boubaghla

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1716-581: A new principality to be governed by the crown prince. Hammad refused to let this happen and responded by ordering the name of the Fatimid caliph to be replaced with the Abbasid caliph in the khutba (Friday sermon) in mosques, a clear departure from Zirid political allegiances. A closely-fought war ended with Hammad and al-Mu'izz ibn Badis concluding a peace agreement which allowed Hammad to retain his effective independence. The Hammadid state reached its apogee under

1859-469: A period known as the fitna of al-Andalus . Zawi initially played a role, along with other Berber factions, in the siege of Córdoba between 1010 and 1013. By the end of the siege they succeeded in installing their own puppet caliph in Córdoba, Sulayman al-Musta'in , but by this point Zawi and other factions were seeking political fortunes elsewhere in al-Andalus. The new caliph granted Zawi and his faction

2002-555: A pledge to recognize al-Mu'izz as their ruler. Al-Mu'izz, eager to expand his influence after the fragmentation of Zirid North Africa, accepted and sent his son, 'Abdallah, to the island with a large army. Al-Akhal, who had been in negotiations with the Byzantines, requested help from them. A Byzantine army intervened and defeated the Zirid army on the island, but it then withdrew to Calabria, allowing 'Abdallah to finish off al-Akhal. Al-Akhal

2145-508: A policy of penetration." —Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil When France recognized the Armenian genocide , Turkey accused France of having committed genocide against 15% of Algeria's population. On 1 December 1830, King Louis-Philippe named the Duc de Rovigo as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of Bône and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to

2288-450: A rebellion in 'Ashir against Badis ibn al-Mansur (r. 996–1016), Buluggin's grandson, marking the first serious break in the unity of the Zirids. The rebels were defeated in battle by Hammad ibn Buluggin , Badis' uncle, and most of the brothers were killed. The only remaining brother of stature, Zawi ibn Ziri , led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in al-Andalus under

2431-628: A resourceful warrior. From his capital in Tlemcen , Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity. The French in Algiers viewed with concern

2574-559: A secretary with whom he replaced the Fatimid-appointed secretary, Ziyadat Allah. In 974 or 977–978 (364 or 367 AH), he founded another capital and palace complex in Ashir, next to his father's foundation, which he favoured over Kairouan. Ashir continued to be the capital of the Zirids in the central Maghreb, while Kairouan was the capital of Ifriqiya. Buluggin soon led a new expedition west and by 980 he had conquered Fez and most of

2717-562: A truce was negotiated, sealed by a marriage between Tamim and one of al-Nasir's daughters. In 1074 Tamim sent a naval expedition to Calabria where they ravaged the Italian coasts, plundered Nicotera and enslaved many of its inhabitants. The next year (1075) another Zirid raid resulted in the capture of Mazara in Sicily; however, the Zirid emir rethought his involvement in Sicily and decided to withdraw, abandoning what they had briefly held. In 1087,

2860-573: Is for their part that civilization is situated." French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of

3003-599: Is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world. The Zirid branch in Granada was also responsible for turning it into one of the major cities of al-Andalus. Among the surviving remains of the Zirid period in Granada today are a section of its original city walls, an extensive system of cisterns on the Albaicín hill, and the former minaret of a mosque (now part of the Church of San José). The Zirids were also patrons of

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3146-479: Is so great that it is exported to Kairouan and elsewhere". Abd al-Aziz ibn Shaddad was a Zirid chronicler and prince. He wrote Kitab al-Jam' wa 'l-bayan fi akhbar al-Qayrawan ( كتاب الجمع والبيان في أخبار القيروان ) about the history of Qayrawan. Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the Zirid ruler, was also himself an author and wrote an important treatise on the arts of the book, covering subjects such as calligraphy , bookbinding , and illumination . The Zirid dynasty

3289-469: The Algerian War (1954-1962), the French used deliberate illegal methods against the Algerians, including (as described by Henri Alleg , who himself had been tortured, and historians such as Raphaëlle Branche) beatings, torture by electroshock, waterboarding , burns, and rape. Prisoners were also locked up without food in small cells, buried alive , and thrown from helicopters to their death or into

3432-623: The Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym to the Maghreb. The Banu Sulaym settled first in Cyrenaica, but the Banu Hilal continued towards Ifriqiya. The Zirids attempted to stop their advance towards Ifriqiya, they sent 30,000 Sanhaja cavalry to meet the 3,000 Arab cavalry of Banu Hilal in the Battle of Haydaran of 14 April 1052. Nevertheless, the Zirids were decisively defeated and were forced to retreat, opening

3575-729: The Count of Villèle , an ultra-royalist , President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers. Admiral Duperré commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from Toulon , leading it to Algiers. Using Napoleon 's 1808 contingency plan for

3718-506: The French army . One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed. Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of Morocco , Abd ar Rahman II , and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the French Navy to bombard and briefly occupy Essaouira ( Mogador ) under

3861-506: The Great Mosque of Sfax , including the construction of a new minaret and an unusually decorated exterior façade, has also been attributed to the Zirid period (probably 10th century) by Georges Marçais and Lucien Golvin . The Hammadids, for their part, built an entirely new fortified capital at Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been studied by modern archeologists and

4004-459: The Marquesas Islands or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs. Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that Britain , which

4147-455: The Mitidja Plain and envisioned the large-scale production there of cotton . As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in

4290-584: The Ottoman Empire , then led by Mahmud II but enjoyed relative independence. The Barbary Coast was the stronghold of Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First (1801–05) and Second (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth , carried out

4433-457: The Prince de Joinville on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the Battle of Sidi-Brahim in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of Oran Province, General Louis de Lamoricière , at the end of 1847. Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to Egypt or Palestine if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but

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4576-607: The Qubbat al-Bahw , was added to the entrance of the prayer hall in 991 and is attributed to the patronage of Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin. The Great Mosque of Kairouan was restored by Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis in the 11th century. From this restoration some brightly-painted wooden ceilings have survived, featuring arabesques of scrolling vegetal motifs. Under Al-Mu’izz the Zirids also built the Sidi Abu Marwan mosque in Annaba . A major remodeling of

4719-597: The Three Glorious Days of July 1830, and his cousin Louis-Philippe , the "citizen king ," was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy . The new government, composed of liberal opponents of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it. Alexis de Tocqueville 's views on Algeria were instrumental in its brutal and formal colonization. He advocated for

4862-677: The Umayyads Caliphs of Cordoba , the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids. He and his followers eventually founded an independent kingdom in al-Andalus, the Taifa of Granada , in 1013. After 1001 Tripolitania broke away under the leadership of Fulful ibn Sa'id ibn Khazrun, a Maghrawa leader who founded the Banu Khazrun dynasty, which endured until 1147. Fulful fought a protracted war against Badis ibn al-Mansur and sought outside help from

5005-528: The locust plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a famine followed by an epidemic of cholera . The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in Algiers . As occupation turned into colonization, Kabylia remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well. In about 1849,

5148-513: The 1130s and 1140s the Normans of Sicily began to capture cities and islands along the coast of Ifriqiya. Jerba was captured in 1135 and Tripoli was captured in 1146. In 1148, the Normans captured Sfax, Gabès, and Mahdia. In Mahdia, the population was weakened by years of famine and the bulk of the Zirid army was away on another campaign when the Norman fleet, commanded by George of Antioch , arrived off

5291-765: The 11th century, as the Kalbids , the dynasty who governed the island on behalf of the Fatimids, fell into disorder. The Zirids of Granada surrendered to the Almoravids in 1090, but the Badicides and the Hammadids remained independent during this time. Sometime between 1041 and 1051 the Zirid ruler al-Mu'izz ibn Badis renounced the Fatimid Caliphs and recognized the Sunni Muslim Abbasid Caliphate . In retaliation,

5434-403: The Algerian population. Colonel Lucien de Montagnac stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs" The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General Thomas Robert Bugeaud , had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts;

5577-708: The Banu Hilal forces, at which point he also brought Kairouan back under Zirid control. He went on to capture Gabès in 1097 and Sfax in 1100. Gabès, however, soon declared itself independent again under the leadership of the Banu Jami', a family from the Riyahi branch of the Banu Hilal. Tamim's son and successor, Yahya ibn Tamim (r. 1108-1116), formally recognized the Fatimid caliphs again and received an emissary from Cairo in 1111. He captured an important fortress near Carthage called Iqlibiya and his fleet launched raids against Sardinia and Genoa , bringing back many captives. He

5720-407: The Banu Hilal largely roamed and pillaged the interior of the former Zirid territories. As a result of the Zirid withdrawal, various local principalities emerged in different areas. In Tunis , the shaykhs of the city elected Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan (r. 1059-1095) as local ruler. He founded the local Banu Khurasan dynasty that governed the city thereafter, alternately recognizing

5863-762: The Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century. During the Directory regime of the First French Republic (1795–99), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for Napoleon's soldiers who participated in the Italian campaign of 1796. But Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it

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6006-526: The El Oufia tribe were killed in one night, while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave. The Siege of Laghouat is referred by Algerians as the year of the "Khalya ," Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population. It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to

6149-486: The Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz was preparing for his departure to Egypt. On 20 December 972, Buluggin took up residence in Sabra al-Mansuriyya , the Fatimid caliph's former palace-city just outside the walls of Kairouan, where his successors continued to reside until the mid-11th century. Buluggin spent much of his time in the west, however. From 974 onward he entrusted the governance of Ifriqiya to Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib,

6292-436: The Fatimid capital, Mahdia . After playing this valuable role, he expanded 'Ashir with a new palace circa 947. In 959 he aided Jawhar al-Siqili on a Fatimid military expedition which successfully conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in present-day Morocco. On their return home to the Fatimid capital they paraded the emir of Fez and the "Caliph" Ibn Wasul of Sijilmasa in cages in a humiliating manner. After this success, Ziri

6435-560: The Fatimids and even from the Umayyads of Cordoba, but after his death in 1009 the Zirids were able to retake Tripoli for a time. The region nonetheless remained effectively under control of the Banu Khazrun, who fluctuated between practical autonomy and full independence, often playing the Fatimids and the Zirids against each other. The Zirids finally lost Tripoli to them in 1022. Badis appointed Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of 'Ashir and

6578-568: The Fatimids in the mid-11th century. The rule of the Zirid emirs opened the way to a period in North African history where political power was held by Berber dynasties such as the Almoravid dynasty , Almohad Caliphate , Zayyanid dynasty , Marinid Sultanate and Hafsid dynasty . Under Buluggin ibn Ziri the Zirids extended their control westwards and briefly occupied Fez and much of present-day Morocco after 980, but encountered resistance from

6721-575: The Fatimids instigated the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe to the Maghreb, dealing a serious blow to Zirid power in Ifriqiya. In the 12th century, the Hilalian invasions combined with the attacks of the Normans of Sicily along the coast further weakened Zirid power. The last Zirid ruler, al-Hasan , surrendered Mahdia to the Normans in 1148, thus ending independent Zirid rule. The Almohad Caliphate conquered

6864-571: The French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for jihad from the marabouts . Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the Two Sicilies in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the Austrian Empire as well as with Spain , then headed by Ferdinand VII , Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency of Abd El-Kader . The latter fought for years against

7007-400: The French and their makhzen allies at Oran in 1832. In the same year, jihad was declared and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old Abd al Qadir . Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as Amir al-Muminin (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and

7150-452: The French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to

7293-430: The French captured Constantine under Sylvain Charles Valée the following year, on 13 October 1837. Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at 3 million in 1830. Although the Algerian population decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872, the French military was not fully responsible for the extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by

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7436-444: The French conquest as genocide . Algeria was ruled as a colony from 1830 to 1848, and then as multiple departments, an integral part of France , with the implementing of the Constitution of French Second Republic on 4 November 1848, until Algerian independence in 1962. For a period between 1860 and 1870, the then-French emperor Napoleon III transformed Algeria into a client state , expanding freedoms, and limiting colonisation,

7579-457: The French conquest of Algeria : By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years later, "the system of extermination must give way to

7722-416: The French during the Algerian War during the 1950s against Algerians include deliberate bombing and killing of unarmed civilians, rape, torture , executions through " death flights " or burial alive , thefts and pillaging. Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps. During the Pacification of Algeria (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a scorched earth policy against

7865-409: The French general Jacques Louis César Randon was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Boubaghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from

8008-500: The French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of

8151-426: The French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran. Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of Tetuan assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of Tlemcen , near the Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape

8294-449: The French. The war ended in 1962, with Algeria gaining independence following the Évian Accords in March 1962 and a self-determination referendum in July 1962. During its last years as part of France, Algeria was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community . Since the capture of Algiers in 1516 by the Ottoman admirals, brothers Ours and Hayreddin Barbarossa , Algeria had been

8437-436: The Great Mosque of Kairouan is believed to date from al-Mu'izz ibn Badis's restoration of the building. It is the oldest maqsura in the Islamic world to be preserved in situ and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in the first half of the 11th century (though later restored). It is one of the most significant works of art from the Zirid period, notable for its elaborately carved woodwork featuring arabesque motifs and

8580-405: The Hammadid ruler al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) began to intervene in Ifriqiya around this time, having his sovereignty recognized in Sfax, Tunis, and Kairouan. Tamim organized a coalition with some of the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes and succeeded in inflicting a heavy defeat on al-Nasir at the Battle of Sabiba in 1065. The war between the Zirids and Hammadids continued until 1077, when

8723-451: The Hammadid ruler, to cross his territory, but after entering Hammadid territory he was detained and placed under house arrest in Algiers. When 'Abd al-Mu'min captured Algiers in 1151, he freed al-Hasan, who accompanied him back to Marrakesh. Later, when 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Mahdia in 1160, placing all of Ifriqiya under Almohad rule, al-Hasan was with him. 'Abd al-Mu'min appointed him governor of Mahdia, where he remained, residing in

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8866-422: The Hammadids or the Zirids as overlords depending on the circumstances. In Qabis (Gabès), the Zirid governor, al-Mu'izz ibn Muhammad ibn Walmiya remained loyal until 1062 when, outraged by the expulsion of his two brothers from Mahdia by al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, he declared his independence and placed himself under the protection of Mu'nis ibn Yahya, a chief of Banu Hilal. Sfaqus (Sfax) was declared independent by

9009-417: The Kalbid Emirs of Sicily. They did, however, face blockade attempts by the Venetians and Normans , who sought to reduce their wood supply and thus their dominance in the region. The Arab chronicler Ibn Hawqal visited and described the city of Algiers in the Zirid era: "The city of Algiers is built on a gulf and surrounded by a wall. It contains a large number of bazaars and a few sources of good water near

9152-429: The Muslim population, due to their lack of political and economic freedom, fueled calls for greater political autonomy , and eventually independence from France. The Sétif and Guelma massacre , in 1945, marked a point of no return in Franco-Algerian relations and led to the outbreak of the Algerian War which was characterised by the use guerrilla warfare by National Liberation Front , and crimes against humanity by

9295-423: The Ottoman Empire, which had not given up its claim. In 1839 Marshal General Jean-de-Dieu Soult , Duke of Dalmatia, first named these territories as "Algeria". The invasion of Algeria against the Regency of Algiers (Ottoman Algeria) was initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration by Charles X , as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people. He particularly hoped to appeal to

9438-468: The Riyahid amir (of the Banu Riyah tribe), to rule the city as king. However, when Muhriz was greeted outside the city, the common people protested and the proposal failed. Abu Muhammad was chased out of the city and followed Muhriz back to La Malga. Khurasanid rule was restored when Abu Bakr ibn Ismail was smuggled over the city walls at night in a basket. Seven months later he was drowned by his nephew Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Aziz, who succeeded him. While Tunis

9581-436: The Umayyad pretender al-Murtada attempted to conquer Granada but was soundly defeated by the Zirids. In 1019 or 1020 Zawi left al-Andalus and returned to Ifriqiya, resuming his ambitions within the Zirid state there. His fate is not known for certain: according to Ibn Hayyan he died of the plague years later, while Abdallah ibn Buluggin's memoirs claim he was poisoned not long after arriving in North Africa, but neither gives

9724-415: The Zirid capital, Mahdia, was sacked by the Pisans . According to Ettinghausen , Grabar , and Jenkins-Madina, the Pisa Griffin is believed to have been part of the spoils taken during the sack. In 1083 Mahdia was besieged by a chief of the Banu Hilal, Malik ibn 'Alawi. Unable to take the city, Malik instead turned to Kairouan and captured that city, but Tamim marched out with his entire army and defeated

9867-468: The Zirid dynasty, Ziri ibn Manad (r. 935–971) was installed as governor of the central Maghreb (roughly north-eastern Algeria today) on behalf of the Fatimids, guarding the western frontier of the Fatimid Caliphate. With Fatimid support Ziri founded his own capital and palace at 'Ashir , south-east of Algiers , in 936. He proved his worth as a key ally in 945, during the Kharijite rebellion of Abu Yazid , when he helped break Abu Yazid's siege of

10010-424: The Zirid governor, Mansur al-Barghawati, who was murdered and succeeded by his cousin Hammu ibn Malil al-Barghawati. Al-Mui'zz ibn Badis was succeeded by his son, Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz (r. 1062-1108), who spent much of his reign attempting to restore Zirid power in the region. In 1063 he repelled a siege of Mahdia by the independent ruler of Sfax while also capturing the important port of Sus (Sousse). Meanwhile,

10153-424: The Zirids broke away completely by adopting Sunni Islam and recognizing the Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs, a move which was popular with the urban Arabs of Kairouan. In Sicily the Kalbids continued to govern on behalf of the Fatimids but the island descended into political disarray during the 11th century, inciting the Zirids to intervene on the island. In 1025 (or 1021 ), al-Mu'izz ibn Badis sent

10296-542: The Zirids of Granada defeated an attack by the Taifa of Almeria in 1038, annexing much of that kingdom's territory and turning Almeria into a vassal state for several years, before they defeated the Abbadids of Seville in battle in 1039, gaining some territory in turn to the west. In 1056 they annexed the Taifa of Malaga . The Taifa of Granada was eventually conquered by the Almoravids of North Africa in 1090, putting an end to

10439-525: The Zirids of Ifriqiya seem to have built few structures on a grand scale and there are few surviving major monuments from this period. They reportedly built a new palace at al-Mansuriyya , the former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been uncovered by modern archeologists, except for some fragments of carved stucco decoration. At the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis an elegantly-designed ribbed dome, called

10582-627: The Zirids, the Hammadids , broke away from the main branch after various internal disputes and took control of the territories of the central Maghreb after 1015. The main branch of the Zirids, also called the Badisides , occupied only Ifriqiya between 1048 and 1148. They were based in Kairouan until 1057, when they moved the capital to Mahdia on the coast. The Zirids of Ifriqiya also intervened in Sicily during

10725-498: The Zirids, who besieged the city again in 1116–7, and then recognized the Hammadids again in 1120–1. Under Khurasanid rule, the small independent kingdom enjoyed some prosperity and security, though its resources were limited. Relative to the other cities of Ifriqiya, Tunis grew in importance during this period. The construction of the Khurasanid dynastic mausoleum, still extant today and known as Sidi Bu Khrisan  [ fr ] ,

10868-457: The advantage on 19 June during the battle of Staouéli , and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on a French ship for the Italian peninsula . 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia, on 11 July. The French army then recruited

11011-567: The arts. Important examples of woodwork commissioned for mosques have survived from this period. Buluggin ibn Ziri commissioned the production of a minbar for the Mosque of the Andalusians in Fez. The minbar, whose original fragments are now preserved in a museum, bears an inscription that dates it to the year 980, around the time of Buluggin's military expedition to this region. The wooden maqsura in

11154-476: The capital of Ifriqiya. In 1128, Ahmad was deposed and the principality was annexed to the Hammadid kingdom. Tunis was controlled by Hammadid governors until it recovered its independence in 1148. After Hammadid rule, there was a brief interregnum during which the people of Tunis elected a new leader, the qadi Abu Muhammad 'Abd al-Mu'min. With the support of the other elites, Abu Muhammad invited Muhriz ibn Riyah,

11297-555: The central Maghreb and Ifriqiya by 1160, ending the Hammadid dynasty in turn and finally unifying the whole of the Maghreb. The Zirids were Sanhaja Berbers , from the sedentary Talkata tribe, originating from the area of modern Algeria . In the 10th century this tribe served as vassals of the Fatimid Caliphate , an Isma'ili Shi'a state that challenged the authority of the Sunni Abbasid caliphs . The progenitor of

11440-576: The coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata. Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand. It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak. The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in Héliopolis . During

11583-602: The coast. Al-Hasan decided to abandon the city, leaving it to be occupied, which effectively ended the Zirid dynasty's rule. Al-Hasan fled to the citadel of al-Mu'allaqa near Carthage and stayed there for a several months. He planned to flee to the Fatimid court in Egypt but the Norman fleet blocked his way, so instead he headed west, making for the Almohad court of ' Abd al-Mu'min in Marrakesh . He obtained permission from Yahya ibn al-'Aziz,

11726-621: The colour of the Abbasids, after having broken with Cairo." Michael Brett points out that the Zirid prince Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis renounced his alleigence to the Fatimids by changing his colors from Fatimid white to Abbasid black. The following list includes the Zirid rulers who ruled in the Maghreb: After 1015, the Hammadid branch ruled in the central Maghreb while the descendants of Badis ibn al-Mansur continued to rule in Ifriqiya: After

11869-508: The colour of the flags is unknown, but he stressed : "The name of the Fatimids appeared on the flags (a'làm), pennants (rayât), standards (bunûd) and on the edging of ceremonial clothing. Flags and robes of honour do not appear to have been made in Ifrïqiya; they were gifts from the caliph." He added: "Let us recall that the official livery of the Zirids, vassals of the Fatimids, had to be white since we have seen that they adopted black,

12012-532: The country was a colony and later an integral part of France . French rule lasted until the end of the Algerian War which resulted in Algeria gaining independence on 5 July 1962. The French conquest of Algeria began in 1830 with the invasion of Algiers which toppled the Regency of Algiers , though Algeria was not fully conquered and pacified until 1903. It is estimated that by 1875, approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians were killed. Various scholars describe

12155-462: The date of his death. In Granada, Zawi's nephew Habbus ibn Maksan was invited by the qadi of the city, Abu 'Abdallah ibn Abi Zamanin, to take control of the new kingdom instead of one Zawi's sons. Under the reign of Habus (1019–1038), the Taifa of Granada was consolidated and evolved into one of the most important political forces of al-Andalus during this period. During the reign of Badis Ibn Habus

12298-452: The dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with Pierre Deval , the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions in 1820 to pay the merchants. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône , further angered

12441-447: The dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle , contrary to the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his fly whisk . Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against

12584-453: The enemy flees across taking his flock." According to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison , the colonization of Algeria led to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated. Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it

12727-601: The first zouaves (a title given to certain light infantry regiments) in October, followed by the spahis regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers , known as Beliks . In the western region of Oran , Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco , the Commander of the Faithful , could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by

12870-515: The government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor. Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend: All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where

13013-704: The government of the Zirid emir al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, the historian Ibn Khaldun reports: "It [has] never [been] seen by the Berbers of that country a kingdom more vast and more flourishing than his own." The northern regions produced wheat in large quantities, while the region of Sfax was a major hub of olive production and the cultivation of the date was an important part of the local economy in Biskra . Other crops such as sugar cane, saffron, cotton, sorghum , millet and chickpea were grown. The breeding of horses and sheep flourished and fishing provided plentiful food. The Mediterranean

13156-454: The independent kingdom. Hammad ibn Buluggin, the son of Buluggin and uncle of Badis ibn al-Mansur, was appointed governor of 'Ashir in 997 and given a great deal of autonomy, even going so far as to build a new capital for himself, known as the Qal'a Bani Hammad. The split between Hammad and his nephew came when Badis declared his son as heir and attempted to designate a part of Hammad's territory as

13299-404: The invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince Moulay Ali Caliph of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, Pierre François Xavier Boyer . Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during

13442-499: The invasion of Algeria, General de Bourmont then landed 27 kilometres (17 mi) west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 janissaries , 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran , and about 17,000 Kabyles . The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took

13585-458: The island in the second half of the 11th century. The Zirids renounced the Fatimids and recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in 1048-49, or sometime between 1041 and 1051. The recognition of the Abbasids was nominal, as the Abbasids themselves were in political decline and could not impose direct authority in the region. In retaliation against the Zirids, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of

13728-470: The last Hammadid ruler, Yahya , had fled. Yahya was given a pension and allowed to retire in Marrakesh and then Sala (Salé), where he died in 1161 or 1162. French Algeria French Algeria ( French : Alger until 1839, then Algérie afterwards; unofficially Algérie française , Arabic : الجزائر المستعمرة ), also known as Colonial Algeria , was the period of Algerian history when

13871-517: The local Zenata Berbers who gave their allegiance to the Caliphate of Cordoba . To the east, Zirid control was extended over Tripolitania after 978 and as far as Ajdabiya (in present-day Libya). One member of the dynastic family, Zawi ibn Ziri , revolted and fled to al-Andalus , eventually founding the Taifa of Granada in 1013, after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba. Another branch of

14014-516: The many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars who lived in Paris. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey." In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to

14157-436: The marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule. After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians. The army carried out summary executions of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser Duguay-Trouin , standing off

14300-559: The minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the Château d'Amboise . According to Ben Kiernan , colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830–1860) of French conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed due to war, massacres, disease and famine. Atrocities committed by

14443-603: The negotiation of a peace agreement between them. Hammad resumed his recognition of the Fatimids as caliphs but remained independent, forging a new Hammadid state which controlled a large part of present-day Algeria thereafter. Qal'at Bani Hammad was retained as the Hammadid capital, while 'Ashir became its second city. The Zirid period of Ifriqiya is considered a high point in its history, with agriculture, industry, trade and learning, both religious and secular, all flourishing, especially in their capital, Qayrawan (Kairouan). The early reign of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062)

14586-697: The nursemaid of al-Mu'izz ibn Badis. It is one of many Qur'an manuscripts that were donated to the Great Mosque of Kairouan and it is one of the most important surviving Islamic manuscripts commissioned by a female patron in North Africa. Its folios are now kept in several museums and collections around the world, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art , the Bardo Museum , and the David Collection . Emblem According to Historian Hady Roger Idris,

14729-560: The overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the Bay of Tangier . An ambassador was sent to Sultan Moulay Abderrahmane in February 1832, headed by the Count Charles-Edgar de Mornay and including the painter Eugène Delacroix . However

14872-564: The partial collapse of Zirid rule in Ifriqiya to have his own authority recognized in many of the main cities there, including Sfax, Kairouan, and Tunis. Pressures from the Banu Hilal tribes eventually forced al-Nasir's successor, al-Mansur (r. 1088-1105), to move the capital to Bijaya (Béjaïa or Bougie), a city founded earlier by al-Nasir. Hammadid rule was eventually ended by the Almohads, led by 'Abd al-Mu'min, who captured Bijaya in 1152. Soon after, 'Abd al-Mu'min's son captured Constantine, where

15015-464: The port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required. Pierre Deval and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the Minister of War , Clermont-Tonnerre , proposed a military expedition. However,

15158-413: The province of Ilbira (Elvira) to settle in 1013. After moving the capital from Madinat Ilbira to the hilltop settlement of Gharnāṭa (Granada) that year, Zawi founded the Taifa kingdom of Granada. Arab sources consider him to be the founder of the present-day city of Granada, a designation also repeated by some modern historians like Helen Rodgers, Stephen Cavendish, and Brian Catlos. In 1018

15301-693: The rebellion of Buluggin's brothers failed in 999, Zawi ibn Ziri sought to move to al-Andalus, which was under Umayyad control. The hajib of Caliph Hisham II (r. 976–1009) and de facto ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba at the time, Ibn Abi ʿAmir al-Mansur (also known as Almanzor), initially refused to allow Zawi's immigration to al-Andalus, believing his reputation as a troublemaker. However, his son and successor, 'Abd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar (r. 1002–1008), seeking able military commanders, granted Zawi and his followers permission to come to Cordoba, where they subsequently became an important part of al-Muzaffar's army. The Caliphate of Córdoba fragmented after 1008,

15444-418: The reign of al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas (r. 1062-1088) during which it was briefly the most important state in the Maghreb. The Hammadid capital attracted scholars and artists from Kairouan, growing its cultural and economic importance. The Hammadids initially weathered the Banu Hilal invasions much better than their Zirid counterparts to the east and sometimes even allied with the new Arab tribes. Al-Nasir exploited

15587-491: The road to Kairouan for the Hilalian Arab cavalry. The resulting anarchy devastated the previously flourishing agriculture, and the coastal towns assumed a new importance as conduits for maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping, as well as being the last holdout of the Zirids. The Banu Hilal invasions eventually forced al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to abandon Kairouan in 1057 and move his capital to Mahdia, while

15730-718: The sea with concrete on their feet. Claude Bourdet had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine L'Observateur , rhetorically asking, "Is there a Gestapo in Algeria? ." D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war. Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with Nazi Germany . The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General Paul Aussaresses admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during

15873-421: The sea. It is from these sources that the inhabitants draw the water they drink. In the outbuildings of this town are very extensive countryside and mountains inhabited by several tribes of the Berbers. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists of herds of cattle and sheep grazing in the mountains. Algiers supplies so much honey that it forms an export object, and the quantity of butter, figs and other commodities

16016-465: The suburb of Zawila, until 'Abd al-Mu'min's death in 1163. The new Almohad caliph, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf , subsequently ordered him to come back to Marrakesh, but al-Hasan died along the way in Tamasna in 1167. The Zirid period was a time of great economic prosperity. The departure of the Fatimids to Cairo, far from ending this prosperity, saw its amplification under the Zirid and Hammadid rulers. Referring to

16159-459: The success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General Thomas Bugeaud in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated

16302-426: The sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen . In 1834, France annexed as a colony the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. Colonial administration in the occupied areas — the so-called régime du sabre (government of the sword) — was placed under a governor-general , a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who

16445-416: The traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Boubaghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as tamnafeqt ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family ," a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband

16588-438: The tribes. He formally recognized al-Nasir as sovereign until 1067, when he was forced to recognize the authority of the Zirid emir Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz, following a fourteen-month siege. His son, 'Abd al-'Aziz (r. 1095–1105), continued to recognize Zirid suzerainty. 'Abd al-'Aziz's brother, Abu al-Ṭahir Isma'il, succeeded him in 1105 but only ruled a short period. The fourth Khurasanid ruler, Ahmad ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz (r. 1107–1128),

16731-518: The use of torture during the war. In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in Sidi Ferruch , a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified Louisette Ighilahriz 's revelations, published in the Le Monde newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu. However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted

16874-514: The village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat. The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, Muhyi ad Din , who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against

17017-419: The war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as imseblen (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces. Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Boubaghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than

17160-492: The war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer Ali Boumendjel and the head of the FLN in Algiers, Larbi Ben M'Hidi , which had been disguised as suicides. Bigeard , who called FLN activists "savages ," claimed torture was a "necessary evil ." To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of

17303-624: The way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches. From 8 May to June 26, 1945, the French carried out the Sétif and Guelma massacre , in which between 6,000 and 80,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between

17446-686: The western Maghreb (present-day Morocco), which had previously been retaken by the Umayyads of Cordoba in 973. He also led a successful expedition to Barghawata territory, from which he brought back a large number of slaves to Ifriqiya. In 978 the Fatimids also granted Buluggin overlordship of Tripolitania (in present-day Libya ), allowing him to appoint his own governor in Tripoli . In 984 Buluggin died in Sijilmasa from an illness and his successor decided to abandon Morocco in 985. After Buluggin's death, he

17589-706: The western Zirid territories in 997. He gave Hammad a great deal of autonomy, allowing him to campaign against the Zanata and control any new territories he conquered. Hammad constructed his own capital, the Qal'at Bani Hammad , in 1008, and in 1015 he rebelled against Badis and declared himself independent altogether, while also recognizing the Abbasids instead of the Fatimids as caliphs. Badis besieged Hammad's capital and nearly subdued him, but died in 1016 shortly before this could be accomplished. His son and successor, al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (r. 1016–1062), defeated Hammad in 1017, which forced

17732-465: Was a Sanhaja Berber dynasty from what is now Algeria which ruled the central Maghreb from 972 to 1014 and Ifriqiya (eastern Maghreb) from 972 to 1148. Descendants of Ziri ibn Manad , a military leader of the Fatimid Caliphate and the eponymous founder of the dynasty, the Zirids were emirs who ruled in the name of the Fatimids. The Zirids gradually established their autonomy in Ifriqiya through military conquest until officially breaking with

17875-467: Was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his thaumaturgic skills. Boubaghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to

18018-464: Was aided by the Fatimid Caliphs, because the latter now preferred him over al-Mansur and wished to impose a new arrangement in Ifriqiya. In the end, al-Mansur ordered the successful assassination of Abd Allah and his son. In 989–990 he also suppressed a revolt by the Kutama , the traditional source of the Fatimid army, under the leadership of a pretender named Abu'l-Faraj. Following these challenges, al-Mansur

18161-457: Was also an important part of the economy, even though it was, for a time, abandoned after the departure of the Fatimids, when the priority of the Zirid Emirs turned to territorial and internal conflicts. Their maritime policy enabled them to establish trade links, in particular for the importation of the timber necessary for their fleet, and enabled them to begin an alliance and very close ties with

18304-472: Was also given Tahart to govern on behalf of the Fatimids. He was eventually killed in battle against the Zanata in 971. When the Fatimids moved their capital to Egypt in 972, Ziri's son Buluggin ibn Ziri (r. 971–984) was appointed viceroy of Ifriqiya , spawning a dynasty whose rulers held the title of amir . Buluggin's position was confirmed on 2 October 972 at Sardaniya, a place outside Kairouan where

18447-413: Was assassinated in 1116 and succeeded by his son, ' Ali ibn Yahya (r. 1116-1121). 'Ali continued to recognize the Fatimids, receiving another embassy from Cairo in 1118. He imposed his authority on Tunis, but failed to recapture Gabès from its local ruler, Rafi' ibn Jami', whose counterattack he then had to repel from Mahdia. He was succeeded by his son al-Hasan in 1121, the last Zirid ruler. During

18590-517: Was besieged in Palermo and killed in 1038. 'Abdallah was subsequently forced to withdraw from the island, either due to the ever-divided Sicilians turning against him or due to another Byzantine invasion in 1038, led by George Maniakes . Another Kalbid amir, al-Hasan al-Samsam, was elected to govern Sicily, but Muslim rule there disintegrated into various petty factions leading up to the Norman conquest of

18733-499: Was completed in July 1093, according to its foundation inscription. In addition to new city walls, Ahmad ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz also built a palace ( qasr ) and a mosque, now known as the Ksar Mosque , to the southwest of the old Zaytuna Mosque . This in turn shifted the center of power within the city and developed its administrative capabilities, a process which culminated in its later role as

18876-439: Was considered by Ibn Khaldun to be the most remarkable of his family. He built ramparts around Tunis to defend it and secured guarantees of safe passage for travellers from the Banu Hilal. He also disposed of the mashyakha council, exiling some of them to Mahdia, and renegotiated the city's agreement with the Arab tribes. He nonetheless continued to formally recognize the sovereignty of more powerful rulers. He first recognized

19019-573: Was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directory's debts. The Dey , who had loaned the Bacri 250,000 francs , requested the rest of the money from France. French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Dey of Algiers was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States , along with today's Tunisia; these depended on

19162-451: Was finally able to reunify the Zirid realm, but he was obliged to move his principal residence from 'Ashir to al-Mansuriyya (Kairouan) in 991, leaving his brother Yattufat to govern 'Ashir. With al-Mansur's succession, the rule of the Zirid was now being passed on through the son of Buluggin and his descendants. This alienated the other sons of Ziri ibn Manad, who now found themselves excluded from power. In 999 many of these brothers launched

19305-546: Was led by Ahmad ibn Muhammad , bey of Constantine . He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his beylik by replacing Turkish officials with local leaders, making Arabic the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of Islam . After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the bey 's territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by Bertrand Clauzel , had to retreat from Constantine in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However,

19448-400: Was neglectful as the agricultural economy declined, prompting an increase in banditry among the rural population. The relationship between the Zirids and their Fatimid overlords varied - 20,000 Shiites were killed in the 1016 Ismaili massacre in Ifriqiya , and the Fatimids encouraged the defection of Tripolitania from the Zirids, but nevertheless the relationship remained close. In the 1040s,

19591-797: Was not conquered by the Normans , some historians have suggested that the Banu Khurasan at this time were granted authority to govern by Roger II of Sicily . In 1159, the last Khurasanid ruler, Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Abd al-Aziz, was ousted by the Almohad Caliphate and sent into exile. The Almohads annexed the whole Ifriqiya to its empire, putting an end to Khurasanid rule. Zirid dynasty French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Zirid dynasty ( Arabic : الزيريون , romanized :  az-zīriyyūn ), Banu Ziri ( Arabic : بنو زيري , romanized :  banū zīrī ),

19734-466: Was particularly prosperous and marked the height of their power in Ifriqiya. In the eleventh century, when the question of Berber origin became a concern, the dynasty of al-Mu'izz started, as part of the Zirids' propaganda, to emphasize its supposed links to the Himyarite kings as a title to nobility, a theme that was taken the by court historians of the period. Management of the area by later Zirid rulers

19877-472: Was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by Ottoman provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance. The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers

20020-519: Was responsible for various constructions and renovations throughout the Maghreb. Zirid and Hammadid architecture in North Africa was closely linked to Fatimid architecture , but also influenced Norman architecture in Sicily . The Zirid palace at 'Ashir (near present-day Kef Lakhdar ), built in 934 by Ziri ibn Manad (who served the Fatimids), is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated. As independent rulers, however,

20163-412: Was responsible to the minister of war. Marshal Bugeaud , who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest. Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a land rush . Clauzel recognized the farming potential of

20306-414: Was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two. Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Boubaghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where

20449-410: Was succeeded by his son Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (r. 984–996). After his departure to the west in 979, Bulugin had not returned to Kairouan and during this time his appointee, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Katib, had amassed considerable power and influence in Ifriqiya. As a result, al-Mansur became involved in a confrontation with Abd Allah starting in 987. Later Zirid sources portray Abd Allah as a rebel who

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