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97-507: Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University ( BSMMU ) is a graduate research university for medical science in Dhaka , Bangladesh. The university was established in 1965 as Institute of Postgraduate Medical Research (IPGMR) . It offers postgraduate degrees in various medical specialties. These programs encompass MPhil , MPH , MD , MS , PhD , and various post-graduate diploma degrees. Before 1998, it offered MBBS degree. It also serves as

194-453: A Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties— law , medicine , or theology —in which to pursue master's or doctor's degrees. The degrees of master (from Latin magister ) and doctor (from Latin doctor ) were for some time equivalent, "the former being more in favour at Paris and the universities modeled after it, and the latter at Bologna and its derivative universities. At Oxford and Cambridge

291-562: A Doctor of Science degree (from Latin Doctor scientiae ; D.Sc.). The Doctor of Science degree can also be awarded in specific fields, such as a Doctor of Science in Mathematics degree (from Latin Doctor scientiarum mathematic arum ; D.Sc.Math.), a Doctor of Agricultural Science degree (from Latin Doctor scientiarum agrariarum ; D.Sc.Agr.), a Doctor of Business Administration degree (D.B.A.), etc. In some parts of Europe, doctorates are divided into

388-577: A teaching hospital . In 2022, a 750-bed super specialised hospital was established in BSMMU. Establishment of the university was an upgrade of the Institute of Postgraduate Medicine and Research (IPGMR) . IPGMR was established in December 1965, as a government-controlled postgraduate institute for medical research and studies. It was housed in the now defunct Hotel Shahbag, once the biggest hotel in Dhaka . The hotel

485-404: A Bachelor's, Licenciate or Technologist degree is required in order to enter a graduate program, called pós-graduação . Generally, in order to be accepted, the candidate must have above average grades and it is highly recommended to be initiated on scientific research through government programs on undergraduate areas, as a complement to usual coursework. The competition for public universities

582-449: A Ph.D. program without the requirement to first complete a master's. Many Canadian graduate programs allow students who start in a master's to "reclassify" into a Ph.D. program after satisfactory performance in the first year, bypassing the master's degree. Students must usually declare their research goal or submit a research proposal upon entering graduate school; in the case of master's degrees, there will be some flexibility (that is, one

679-424: A bachelor's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher (different schools have different letter grade conventions, and this requirement may be significantly higher in some faculties), and recommendations from professors. Admission to a high-quality thesis-type master's program generally requires an honours bachelor or Canadian bachelor with honours , samples of

776-452: A bed. They often delegate such care to nursing assistants . Medication management and administration are common hospital nursing roles, although prescribing authority varies across jurisdictions. In many areas, RNs administer and manage medications prescribed by others. Nurses are responsible for evaluating patients throughout their care – including before and after medication administration – adjustments to medications are often made through

873-713: A collaborative effort between the prescriber and the nurse. Regardless of the prescriber, nurses are legally responsible for the drugs they administer. Legal implications may accompany an error in a prescription, and the nurse may be expected to note and report the error. In the United States, nurses have the right to refuse to administer medication that they deem to be potentially harmful. Some nurses take additional training that allows them to prescribe medications within their scope of practice. Effective patient/family education leads to better outcomes. Nurses explain procedure, recovery, and ongoing care, while helping everyone cope with

970-571: A completed undergraduate (pass) degree with a high grade-point average ). In scientific research, it is commonly accepted that an Australian postgraduate honours is equivalent to a British master's degree (in research). There has been some debate over the acceptance of a three-year honours degree (as in the case of graduates from British universities) as the equivalent entry requirement to graduate research programmes (M.Phil., Ph.D.) in Australian universities. The letters of honours programmes also added to

1067-436: A digital library. The university publishes a peer-reviewed medical journal, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University Journal . ISSN   2224-7750 (online) 2074-2908 (print). It publishes 4 issue per year. The institution has had ten vice-chancellors since it began in 1998: The BSMMU campus has five multiple-floor buildings that house a variety of academic, medical, and residential spaces. The Graduate Nursing campus

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1164-415: A dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a postgraduate committee. This committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. Programmes are divided into coursework-based and research-based degrees. Coursework programs typically include qualifications such as: Generally,

1261-523: A distinction came to be drawn between the Faculties of Law, Medicine, and Theology and the Faculty of Arts in this respect, the title of Doctor being used for the former, and that of Master for the latter." Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the doctorate came to be thought of as higher than the master's. The main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed

1358-430: A doctoral program typically requires a master's degree in a related field, sufficiently high grades, recommendations, samples of writing, a research proposal, and an interview with a prospective supervisor. Requirements are often set higher than those for a master's program. In exceptional cases, a student holding an honours BA with sufficiently high grades and proven writing and research abilities may be admitted directly to

1455-633: A few hundred municipal hospices to remain in operation in northern Europe. Nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to marry and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church , were removed from their positions. The nursing profession in Europe was extinguished for approximately 200 years. During the Crimean War , Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna called for women to join

1552-429: A graduate certificate program requires a university degree (or in some cases, a diploma with years of related experience). English speaking colleges require proof of English language proficiency such as IELTS. Some colleges may provide English language upgrading to students prior to the start of their graduate certificate program. Admission to a master's (course-based, also called "non-thesis") program generally requires

1649-625: A half century, over 5,000 deaconesses had surfaced in Europe. Formal use of nurses in the military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War , the Egyptian Campaign (1882), and the Sudan Campaign (1883). In the 19th and early 20th century, nursing was considered a woman's profession, just as doctoring was a profession for men. With increasing expectations of workplace equality during

1746-422: A master's degree by research, or a master's with a significant research component. Entry requirements depend on the subject studied and the individual university. The minimum duration of a Ph.D. programme is two years, but completing within this time span is unusual, with Ph.D.s usually taking an average of three to four years to be completed. Most of the confusion with Australian postgraduate programmes occurs with

1843-478: A minimum of two years but frequently take much longer, although not usually exceeding six years. Graduate students may take out student loans , but instead they often work as teaching or research assistants . Students often agree, as a condition of acceptance to a programme, not to devote more than twelve hours per week to work or outside interests. Funding is available to first-year masters students whose transcripts reflect exceptionally high grades; this funding

1940-567: A narrower scope of practice. Nursing is a female-dominated profession in many countries; according to the WHO's 2020 State of the World's Nursing, approximately 90% of the nursing workforce is female. For instance, the male-to-female ratio of nurses is approximately 1:19 in Canada and the United States. This ratio is matched in many other countries. Notable exceptions include Francophone Africa , which includes

2037-706: A one-and-a-half-year programme, and twelve taught modules plus a thesis or dissertation for a two-year programme. The academic year for an Australian postgraduate programme is typically two semesters (eight months of study). Requirements for research-based programmes vary among universities. Generally, however, a student is not required to take taught modules as part of their candidacy. It is now common that first-year Ph.D. candidates are not regarded as permanent Ph.D. students for fear that they may not be sufficiently prepared to undertake independent research. In such cases, an alternative degree will be awarded for their previous work, usually an M.Phil. or M.Sc. by research. In Brazil,

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2134-437: A particular profession ) and professional schools , which can include medical school , law school , business school , and other institutions of specialized fields such as nursing , speech–language pathology , engineering , or architecture . The distinction between graduate schools and professional schools is not absolute since various professional schools offer graduate degrees and vice versa. Producing original research

2231-617: A prerequisite to continuing their studies, and must defend their thesis as a final requirement. Some faculties require candidates to earn sufficient credits in a third or fourth foreign language; for example, most candidates in modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese , and Mandarin , while candidates in pre-modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, Classical Chinese , and Classical Japanese . At English-speaking Canadian universities, both master's and Ph.D. theses may be presented in English or in

2328-671: A previous bachelors for admission and are considered graduate or Graduate Entry programs even though they culminate in a bachelor's degree. Example, the Bachelor of Medicine (MBBS) or Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent) . There has also been some confusion over the conversion of the different marking schemes between British, US, and Australian systems for the purpose of assessment for entry to graduate programmes. The Australian grades are divided into four categories: High Distinction, Distinction, Credit, and Pass (though many institutions have idiosyncratic grading systems). Assessment and evaluation based on

2425-486: A requirement of taking two additional courses, at minimum, in lieu of preparing a thesis. Ph.D. candidates undertaking research must typically complete a thesis, or dissertation , consisting of original research representing a significant contribution to their field, and ranging from 200 to 500 pages. Most Ph.D. candidates will be required to sit comprehensive examinations —examinations testing general knowledge in their field of specialization—in their second or third year as

2522-502: A research project or a work placement. Both master's and doctoral programs may be done by coursework or research or a combination of the two, depending on the subject and faculty . Most faculties require both, with the emphasis on research, and with coursework being directly related to the field of research. Master's and doctoral programs may also be completed on a part-time basis. Part-time graduate programs will usually require that students take one to two courses per semester, and

2619-758: A source of free/inexpensive labor. Exploitation of nurses was not uncommon by employers, physicians, and education providers. Many nurses saw active duty in the First World War , but the profession transformed again during the Second World War . British nurses of the Army Nursing Service were part of every overseas campaign. More nurses volunteered for service in the US Army and Navy than any other occupation. The Nazis had their own Brown Nurses, numbering 40,000. Two dozen German Red Cross nurses were awarded

2716-643: A specialization course in one area of study, mostly addressed to professional practice, and stricto sensu (Latin for "in narrow sense"), which means a master's degree or doctorate , encompassing broader and profound activities of scientific research. In Canada , the schools and faculties of graduate studies are represented by the Canadian Association of Graduate Studies (CAGS) or Association canadienne pour les études supérieures (ACES). The Association brings together 58 Canadian universities with graduate programs, two national graduate student associations, and

2813-412: A wide range of settings, including hospitals, private homes , schools , and pharmaceutical companies . Nurses work in occupational health settings (also called industrial health settings), free-standing clinics, physician offices, nurse-led clinics , long-term care facilities and camps. They work on cruise ships , military bases , and in combat settings. Nurses act as advisers and consultants to

2910-414: A wider range of study, for which some fixed portion of coursework, sometimes known as a residency , is typically required to be taken from outside the department and university of the degree-seeking candidate to broaden the research abilities of the student. There are two main types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level: academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this context means

3007-658: A written test, followed by a viva and a final medical examination. Admission is highly competitive in Bangladesh, with only a few students being selected. Every student receives a stipend from the Graduate Nursing Department, which is staffed by renowned teachers. List of affiliated colleges/institutes under BSMMU: Graduate school The organization and structure of postgraduate education varies in different countries, as well as in different institutions within countries. The term "graduate school" or "grad school"

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3104-401: Is a health care profession that "integrates the art and science of caring and focuses on the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and human functioning; prevention of illness and injury; facilitation of healing; and alleviation of suffering through compassionate presence". Nurses practice in many specialties with varying levels of certification and responsibility. Nurses comprise

3201-420: Is a significant component of graduate studies in the humanities , natural sciences and social sciences . This research typically leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation . In graduate programs that are oriented toward professional training (e.g., MPA , MBA , JD , MD ), the degrees may consist solely of coursework , without an original research or thesis component. Graduate students in

3298-537: Is defined and governed by law, and entrance to the profession is regulated at the national or state level. The nursing community worldwide aims for professional nurses to ensure quality care, while maintaining their credentials, code of ethics , standards, and competencies, and continuing their education. Multiple educational paths lead to becoming a professional nurse; these vary by jurisdiction; all involve extensive study of nursing theory and practice as well as training in clinical skills. Nurses provide care based on

3395-520: Is described in many sources as "the first visiting nurse". These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing. Its religious roots remain in evidence in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the historical title "sister" to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation , Protestant reformers shut down monasteries and convents, allowing

3492-406: Is further complicated by the numerous interpretations of nursing's defining essence. During the 1980s there was an increased focus on research utilization (RU). Nursing research took an interest in clinical issues and US nursing schools began teaching research methods to facilitate interpretation and integration of scientific findings in routine practice. Several RU initiatives were active during

3589-591: Is located in Poribagh, Shahbag, Dhaka. It consists of 8 faculties: Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Surgery, Faculty of Basic Science and Para Clinical Science, Faculty of Dentistry, Faculty of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medical Technology, Faculty of Nursing, and Faculty of Preventive and Social Medicine. These faculties offer courses such as MD, MS, M.Phil., M.MEd, BSN, MSN, Diploma, MPH, and PhD. Admission procedures for MD, MS, M.Phil., M.MEd, Diploma, MPH, BSN, MSN, and PhD programs vary each year. The admission process includes

3686-472: Is normally given in the second year. Funding for Ph.D. students comes from a variety of sources, and many universities waive tuition fees for doctoral candidates. Funding is available in the form of scholarships , bursaries and other awards, both private and public. Graduate certificates require between eight and sixteen months of study. The length of study depends on the program. Graduate certificates primarily involve coursework. However, some may require

3783-430: Is not always the case as the credit structure of doctoral degrees is not officially defined. In some countries such as Finland and Sweden, there is the degree of Licentiate , which is more advanced than a master's degree but less so than a doctorate. Credits required are about half of those required for a doctoral degree. Coursework requirements are the same as for a doctorate, but the extent of original research required

3880-551: Is not as high as for doctorate. Medical doctors for example are typically licentiates instead of doctors. In the UK and countries whose education systems were founded on the British model, such as the US, the master's degree was for a long time the only postgraduate degree normally awarded, while in most European countries apart from the UK, the master's degree almost disappeared . In the second half of

3977-405: Is not held to one's research proposal, although major changes, for example from premodern to modern history, are discouraged). In the case of Ph.D.s, the research direction is usually known as it will typically follow the direction of the master's research. Master's degrees can be completed in one year but normally take at least two; they typically may not exceed five years. Doctoral degrees require

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4074-406: Is selected based on the care setting and the population served. In providing nursing care, the nurse uses both nursing theory and best practice derived from nursing research . Many nursing theories are in use. Like other disciplines, the profession has developed multiple theories derived reflecting varying philosophical beliefs and paradigms or worldviews . In general terms, the nursing process

4171-596: Is the NVQ 5 or QCF 8. Most universities award honorary degrees, usually at the postgraduate level. These are awarded to a wide variety of people, such as artists, musicians, writers, politicians, businesspeople, etc., in recognition of their achievements in their various fields. (Recipients of such degrees do not normally use the associated titles or letters, such as "Dr.") Postgraduate education can involve studying for qualifications such as postgraduate certificates and postgraduate diplomas . They are sometimes used as steps on

4268-742: Is the method used to assess and diagnose needs, plan outcomes and interventions, implement interventions, and evaluate outcomes. The nursing process as defined by the American Nurses Association comprises five steps: 1) evaluate, 2) implement, 3) plan, 4) diagnose, and 5) assess. Digital health platforms connect nurses and nurse assistants with job openings in healthcare facilities such as skilled nursing homes, home health agencies, and hospitals. Platforms offer an app to facilitate communication and allow nurses to find work opportunities based on their preferences. Healthcare partners and facilities benefit from access to qualified nurses. In 2017,

4365-408: Is the most diverse of all health care professions . Nurses practice in a wide range of settings, but generally follows the needs of their patients. The major specialties are: Nurses with additional degrees allow for specialization. Nursing professions can be separated into categories by care type, age, gender, certain age group, practice setting, individually or in combination. Nurses practice in

4462-415: Is the norm for accepted students. Not all coursework programs require the student to already possess the relevant undergraduate degree, they are intended as "conversion" or professional qualification programs, and merely any relevant undergraduate degree with good grades is required. Ph.D. entrance requirements in the higher ranked schools typically require a student to have postgraduate research honours or

4559-526: Is typically used in North America , while "postgraduate" is more common in the rest of the English-speaking world. Graduate degrees can include master's and doctoral degrees, and other qualifications such as graduate diplomas, certificates and professional degrees . A distinction is typically made between graduate schools (where courses of study vary in the degree to which they provide training for

4656-538: Is very large, as they are the most prestigious and respected universities in Brazil. Public universities do not charge fees for undergraduate level/course. Funding, similar to wages, is available but is usually granted by public agencies linked to the university in question (i.e. FAPESP , CAPES , CNPq , etc.), given to the students previously ranked based on internal criteria. There are two types of postgraduate ; lato sensu (Latin for "in broad sense"), which generally means

4753-504: The Iron Cross for heroism under fire. The development of undergraduate and post-graduate nursing degrees came after the war. Nursing research and a desire for association and organization led to the formation of professional organizations and academic journals . Nursing became recognized as a distinct academic discipline, initially tasked to define the theoretical basis for practice. Nurses are perceived to be in short supply around

4850-497: The Master of Business Administration degree (M.B.A.) can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a knowledgeable business leader. Doctorates . These are often further divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree (from Latin Doctor philosophiae ; Ph.D. or D.Phil.), a Doctor of Psychology degree (from Latin Doctor psychologia; Psy.D.), or as

4947-552: The Master of Letters degree (from Latin Magister litterarum ; M.Litt.) (all formerly known in France as DEA or DESS before 2005, and nowadays Masters too). In the UK, master's degrees may be taught or by research: taught master's degrees include the Master of Science and Master of Arts degrees which last one year and are worth 180 CATS credits (equivalent to 90 ECTS European credits ), whereas

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5044-400: The Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower master's degree. In many fields such as clinical social work , or library science in North America , a master's is the terminal degree . Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree (M.Arch.) can last to three and a half years to satisfy professional requirements to be an architect. Professional degrees such as

5141-418: The first schools of nursing to be connected to a hospital and medical school. It spread widely in Europe and North America after 1870. Nightingale included five factors that helped nurses in her time who worked amidst poor sanitation and little education. These factors included fresh air, clean water, a working drainage system, cleanliness, and good light. Nightingale believed that a clean working environment

5238-550: The 19th century in the Crimea, Central America, and Jamaica. Her predecessors had great success as healers in the Colony of Jamaica in the 18th century, and they included Seacole's mother (Mrs. Grant), Sarah Adams, Cubah Cornwallis , and Grace Donne, the mistress and doctress to Jamaica's wealthiest planter, Simon Taylor . Other important nurses in the development of the profession include: Red Cross chapters, which began appearing after

5335-520: The 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, and this practice spread to the UK. Conversely, most European universities now offer master's degrees parallelling or replacing their regular system, so as to offer their students better chances to compete in an international market dominated by the American model. In the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate

5432-515: The Australian Government's FEE-Help loan scheme. Some students may be eligible for a Commonwealth Supported Place (CSP), via the HECS-Help scheme, at a substantially lower cost. Requirements for the successful completion of a taught master's programme are that the student pass all the required modules. Some universities require eight taught modules for a one-year programme, twelve modules for

5529-412: The Australian higher education system follows that of its British counterpart (with some notable exceptions). Entrance is decided by merit, entrance to coursework-based programmes is usually not as strict; most universities usually require a "Credit" average as entry to their taught programmes in a field related to their previous undergraduate. On average, however, a strong "Credit" or "Distinction" average

5626-826: The Australian system is not equivalent to British or US schemes because of the "low-marking" scheme used by Australian universities. For example, a British student who achieves 70+ will receive an A grade, whereas an Australian student with 70+ will receive a Distinction which is not the highest grade in the marking scheme. The Australian government usually offer full funding (fees and a monthly stipend) to its citizens and permanent residents who are pursuing research-based higher degrees. There are also highly competitive scholarships for international candidates who intend to pursue research-based programmes. Taught-degree scholarships (certain master's degrees, Grad. Dip., Grad. Cert., D.Eng., D.B.A.) are almost non-existent for international students. Domestic students have access to tuition subsidy through

5723-529: The Doctor of Philosophy degree or "junior doctorate", and the "higher doctorates" such as the Doctor of Science degree, which is generally awarded to highly distinguished professors. A doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is little distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the UK, Doctor of Philosophy degrees are often equivalent to 540 CATS credits or 270 ECTS European credits, but this

5820-572: The Fulbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing. Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a postgraduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. The Master and Doctoral candidate's work should be presented in

5917-460: The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) are male. The number of male nurses in the United States doubled between 1980 and 2000. On average, male nurses in the US receive more pay than female nurses. Nursing practice is the actual provision of nursing care. In providing care, nurses implement a nursing care plan defined using the nursing process . This is based around a specific nursing theory that

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6014-720: The Order of Exaltation of the Cross ( Krestodvizhenskaya Obshchina ) for a year of service in military hospitals. The first section of twenty-eight "sisters", headed by Aleksandra Petrovna Stakhovich, the Directress of the Order, reached Crimea early in November 1854. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing after the Crimean War , in light of a comprehensive statistical study she made of sanitation in India, leading her to emphasize

6111-472: The UK's National Health Service began trialing such a platform. Platforms such as United States –based ConnectRN, Nomad Health, Gale Healthcare solutions or Lantum add resources, career development tools, and networking opportunities. Florence Nightingale's seminal epidemiological study examining mortality among British soldiers during the Crimean War was published in 1858. With the exception of her works, nursing practice remained an oral tradition until

6208-416: The US, Australia, and other countries) is often offered by some of the same senior academic staff and departments who teach undergraduate courses. Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is less common for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate or graduate entry level. At the doctorate programs, though, it is quite common for students to take courses from

6305-623: The body as mentioned before including the skin, cannot be correctly described by one who is not well versed in anatomy. Hence, anyone desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it, and examining its different parts." In the Middle Ages , members of religious orders such as nuns and monks often provided nursing-like care. Examples exist in Christian , Islamic , Buddhist , and other traditions. The biblical figure of Phoebe

6402-520: The confusion. For example: B.Sc. (Hons) are the letters gained for postgraduate research honours at the University of Queensland. B.Sc. (Hons) does not indicate that this honours are postgraduate qualification. The difficulty also arises between different universities in Australia—some universities have followed the UK system. There are many professional programs such as medical and dental school require

6499-551: The countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire , the Democratic Republic of Congo , Djibouti , Guinea , Gabon , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , and Togo , which all have more male than female nurses. In Europe, in countries such as Spain , Portugal , Czech Republic and Italy , over 20% of nurses are male. In the United Kingdom, 11% of nurses and midwives registered with

6596-568: The equivalent qualification in Law degrees (a graduate from a "carrera de grado") are similar in content, length and skill-set to a joint first and second cycles in the qualification framework of the Bologna Process (that is, Bachelor and Master qualifications). While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as

6693-695: The establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1863, offered employment and professionalization opportunities for nurses (despite Nightingale's initial objections). Catholic orders such as Little Sisters of the Poor , Sisters of Mercy , Sisters of St. Mary , St. Francis Health Services, Inc. and Sisters of Charity built hospitals and provided nursing services during this period. The modern deaconess movement began in Germany in 1836. Within

6790-507: The following definitions: Nursing encompasses autonomous and collaborative care of individuals of all ages, families, groups and communities, sick or well, and in all settings. Nursing includes the promotion of health, prevention of illness, and the care of ill, disabled and dying people. Advocacy, promotion of a safe environment, research, participation in shaping health policy and in patient and health systems management, and education are also key nursing roles. The use of clinical judgment in

6887-557: The founding of the Cochrane Collaboration in 1993. The emerging area of evidence-based medicine also applies to nursing. Common barriers to the study and integration of research findings into clinical decision making include: a lack of opportunity, inexperience, and the rapid pace of evidence accumulation. Nurses manage and coordinate care to support activities of daily living (ADL). This includes assisting in patient mobility, such as moving an activity intolerant patient within

6984-479: The holder to teach ("doctor" comes from Latin docere , "to teach"). In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows: Master's degrees . These are sometimes placed in a further hierarchy, starting with degrees such as the Master of Arts (from Latin Magister artium ; M.A.) and Master of Science (from Latin Magister scientiae ; M.Sc.) degrees, then the Master of Philosophy degree (from Latin Magister philosophiae ; M.Phil.), and finally

7081-410: The humanities, sciences and social sciences often receive funding from their university (e.g., fellowships or scholarships ) or a teaching assistant position or other job; in the profession-oriented grad programs, students are less likely to get funding, and the fees are typically much higher. Although graduate school programs are distinct from undergraduate degree programs, graduate instruction (in

7178-466: The importance of sanitation. "After 10 years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported that mortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69 to 18 per 1,000". Nightingale believed that nursing was a social freedom and mission for women. She believed that any educated woman could help improve the care of the ill. Her Notes on Nursing (1859) was a popular call to action. The Nightingale model of nursing education led to one of

7275-435: The individual's physical, emotional, psychological, intellectual, social, and spiritual needs. The profession combines physical science, social science, nursing theory, and technology. Nurses typically hold one or more formal credentials. Roles and responsibilities follow the level of education. For example, in the United States, Licensed Practical Nurses (LPN) have less education than Registered Nurses (RN) and accordingly,

7372-753: The language of the subject ( German for German literature , for example), but if this is the case an extensive abstract must be also presented in English. In exceptional circumstances , a thesis may be presented in French. One exception to this rule is McGill University, where all work can be submitted in either English or French, unless the purpose of the course of study is acquisition of a language. French-speaking universities have varying sets of rules; some (e.g. HEC Montreal ) will accept students with little knowledge of French if they can communicate with their supervisors (usually in English). Nursing Nursing

7469-702: The largest component of most healthcare environments. There are shortages of qualified nurses in many countries. Nurses develop a plan of care, working collaboratively with physicians , therapists , patients, patients' families, and other team members that focuses on treating illness to improve quality of life. In the United Kingdom and the United States, clinical nurse specialists and nurse practitioners diagnose health problems and prescribe medications and other therapies, depending on regulations that vary by state. Nurses may help coordinate care performed by other providers or act independently as nursing professionals. In addition to providing care and support, nurses educate

7566-461: The late 20th century, but the RU movement was superseded by evidence-based practice in the 1990s. Evidence-based practice (EBP) is about using research, but unlike RU it allows for the integration of research findings with clinical expertise and patient preferences. The EBP movement had originated in the field of medicine with Archie Cochrane publishing Effectiveness and Efficiency in 1972, leading up to

7663-412: The late 20th century, nursing became an officially gender-neutral profession, though in practice the percentage of male nurses remained well below that of female physicians in the 21st century. Hospital-based training became standard in the US in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience. The Nightingale-style school began to disappear. Hospitals and physicians saw women in nursing as

7760-461: The list. A 2023 American survey found that around 30% were considering leaving patient care. According to the traditional interpretation physicians are concerned with curing or treating medical conditions, while nurses focus on care. In healthcare settings this line is often blurred, complicating the task of distinguishing the professions. Although nursing practice varies both through its various specialties and countries, nursing organizations offer

7857-446: The master's degrees by research include the Master of Research degree (M.Res.) which also lasts one year and is worth 180 CATS or 90 ECTS credits (the difference compared to the Master of Science and Master of Arts degrees being that the research is much more extensive) and the Master of Philosophy degree which lasts two years. In Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher master's degree and

7954-409: The medical situation. Many times, nurses are busy, leaving little time to educate patients. Patients' families needs similar education. Educating both patient and their families increases the chance for a better outcome. Nurses have to communicate in a way that can be understood by patients. Education techniques encompass conversations, visuals, reading materials, and demonstrations. Nursing

8051-424: The mid-20th century. The inaugural issue of Nursing Research , the first scientific journal specialized in nursing, came in in 1952. During the 1960s, interest in attaining PhDs increased among nurses in the US, but nursing remained a fledgling area of research, with few journals until the 1970s. Nursing research is increasingly presented as a valid discipline, although lacking a prevailing definition. The question

8148-399: The moving from one stage or level to another (from French degré , from Latin dē- + gradus ), and first appeared in the 13th century. Although systems of higher education date back to ancient India , ancient Greece , ancient Rome and ancient China , the concept of postgraduate education depends upon the system of awarding degrees at different levels of study, and can be traced to

8245-432: The nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities contributing to health or its recovery (or to peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge. The practice of nursing is based upon a social contract that delineates professional rights and responsibilities as well as accountability mechanisms. In almost all countries, nursing practice

8342-516: The part-time graduate programs may be offered in online formats, evening formats, or a combination of both. Master's candidates undertaking research are typically required to complete a thesis comprising some original research and ranging from 70 to 200 pages. Some fields may require candidates to study at least one foreign language if they have not already earned sufficient foreign-language credits. Some faculties require candidates to defend their thesis , but many do not. Those that do not, often have

8439-515: The provision of care to enable people to improve, maintain, or recover health, to cope with health problems, and to achieve the best possible quality of life, whatever their disease or disability, until death. Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities; prevention of illness and injury; alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human responses; and advocacy in health care for individuals, families, communities, and populations. The unique function of

8536-524: The public and promote health and wellness. In the U.S., nurse practitioners are nurses with a graduate degree in advanced practice nursing, and are permitted to prescribe medications. They practice independently in a variety of settings in more than half of the United States. In the postwar period, nurse education has diversified, awarding advanced and specialized credentials , and many traditional regulations and roles are changing. Nursing historians face challenges of determining whether care provided to

8633-435: The research-based programmes, particularly scientific programmes. Research degrees generally require candidates to have a minimum of a second-class four-year honours undergraduate degree to be considered for admission to a Ph.D. programme (M.Phil. are an uncommon route ). In science, a British first class honours (3 years) is not equivalent to an Australian first class honours (1 year research postgraduate programme that requires

8730-491: The route to a degree, as part of the training for a specific career, or as a qualification in an area of study too narrow to warrant a full degree course. In Argentina, the admission to a Postgraduate program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of any undergraduate course, called in Argentina "carrera de grado" (v.gr. Licenciado , Ingeniero or Lawyer degree). The qualifications of 'Licenciado', 'Ingeniero', or

8827-534: The sick or injured in antiquity is called nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places described skilled care and observation of patients by male "attendants," who may have provided care now provided by nurses. Around 600 BC in India, it is recorded in Sushruta Samhita , Book 3, Chapter V about the role of the nurse as "the different parts or members of

8924-629: The student's writing as well as a research thesis proposal. Some programs require Graduate Record Exams (GRE) in both the general examination and the examination for its specific discipline, with minimum scores for admittance. At English-speaking universities, applicants from countries where English is not the primary language are required to submit scores from the Test of English as a Foreign Language ( TOEFL ). Nevertheless, some French speaking universities, like HEC Montreal, also require candidates to submit TOEFL score or to pass their own English test. Admission to

9021-402: The three federal research-granting agencies and organizations having an interest in graduate studies. Its mandate is to promote, advance, and foster excellence in graduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to an annual conference, the association prepares briefs on issues related to graduate studies including supervision, funding, and professional development. Admission to

9118-416: The workings of European medieval universities , mostly Italian. University studies took six years for a bachelor's degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts : arithmetic , geometry , astronomy, music theory, grammar , logic, and rhetoric. The main emphasis was on logic. Once

9215-459: The world, particularly in South East Asia and Africa. A global survey by McKinsey & Company in 2022 found that between 28% and 38% of nurse respondents in the United States, the United Kingdom, Singapore, Japan, and France said they were likely to leave their role in direct patient care in the next year. The top five factors which they said would make them stay were: Pay ranked eighth on

9312-530: Was important in caring for patients. In the 19th century, this theory was ideal for helping patients, providing a guide for nurses to alter the environment around patients for the betterment of their health. Nightingale's recommendations built upon the successes of Jamaican "doctresses" such as Mary Seacole , who like Nightingale, served in the Crimean War. Seacole practised hygiene and the use of herbs in healing wounded soldiers and those suffering from diseases in

9409-539: Was named after Shahbag , the neighborhood where it was located. From 2010, many of the medical and public health colleges/institutes have become affiliated to BSMMU. For example BIRDEM , BIHS, DMC , SSMC , NICVD , NITOR and others. It was renamed as Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University by the Act 1, 1998 of Jatiyo Sangshad after the first President of Bangladesh , Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman . BSMMU has an academic library known as BSMMU Central Library, and

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