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158-555: Balkh, also called Vazīrābād, the name of the province is derived from the ancient city of Balkh , near the modern town. The city of Mazar-e-Sharif has been an important stop on the trade routes from the Far East to the Middle East , the Mediterranean and Europe . Home to the famous blue mosque , it was once destroyed by Genghis Khan but later rebuilt by Timur . The city of Balkh and

316-455: A malaria outbreak during the flood season, Balkh lost its administrative status to the neighbouring city of Mazar-i-Sharif ( Mazār-e Šarīf ), about 20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Balkh. In 1911 Balkh comprised a settlement of about 500 houses of Afghan settlers, a colony of Jews and a small bazaar set in the midst of a waste of ruins and acres of debris. Entering by the west ( Akcha ) gate, one passed under three arches, in which

474-439: A belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Hinduism . Zoroastrianism contains multiple classes of divine beings, who are typically organised into tiers and spheres of influence. The Ahura are a class of divine beings "inherited by Zoroastrianism from the prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In

632-491: A bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies. Those with a balance of good and evil go to Hamistagan , a purgatorial realm mentioned in the 9th century work Dadestan-i Denig . The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food,

790-651: A class of seven divine entities that represent various aspects of the universe and the highest moral good. Emanating from Ahura Mazda is Spenta Mainyu (the Holy or Bountiful Spirit), the source of life and goodness, which is opposed by Angra Mainyu (the Destructive or Opposing Spirit), who is born from Aka Manah (evil thought). Angra Mainyu was further developed by Middle Persian literature into Ahriman ( 𐭠𐭧𐭫𐭬𐭭𐭩 ), Ahura Mazda's direct adversary. Zoroastrian doctrine holds that, within this cosmic dichotomy, human beings have

948-462: A combination of all three. Zoroastrianism shaped Iranian culture and history , while scholars differ on whether it significantly influenced ancient Western philosophy and the Abrahamic religions , or gradually reconciled with other religions and traditions, such as Christianity and Islam . Originating from Zoroaster's reforms of the ancient Iranian religion , Zoroastrianism may have roots in

1106-521: A concept, it also contains a wide range of other meanings; though generally signifying (or used as an epithet of) a divinity. The origins of Yazata are varied, with many also being featured as gods in Hinduism , or other Iranian religions. In modern Zoroastrianism, the Yazata are considered holy emanations of the creator, always devoted to him and obey the will of Ahura Mazda . While subject to repression by

1264-595: A firm hold over lands beyond the Oxus for the Arabs. He fought and killed Tarkhan Nizak in Tokharistan (Bactria) in 715. In the wake of Arab conquest, the resident monks of the Vihara were either killed or forced to abandon their faith. The Viharas were razed to the ground. Priceless treasures in the form of manuscripts in the libraries of monasteries were consigned to ashes. Presently, only

1422-555: A large number of stupas and other religious monuments. Xuanzang also remarked that Buddhism was widely practiced by the Hunnish rulers of Balkh, who were descended from Indian royal stock. During the 8th century, the Korean monk and traveler Hyecho (704–787 CE) recorded that even after the Arab invasion, the residents of Balkh continued to practice Buddhism and followed a Buddhist king. He noted that

1580-417: A significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values, and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it. The ultimate purpose in the life of a practicing Zoroastrian is to become an ashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. The core teachings of Zoroastrianism include: According to

1738-791: A similar vein, the British author John G. Bennett , whose academic focus was on the teachings of the Armenian-Greek mystic George Gurdjieff , speculated in his works that Shambhala may have been a Bactrian Sun temple called Shams-i-Balkh , taking note of the Afghan author and mystic Idries Shah as the source of this suggestion. Wilhelm Eilers proposed that the region was named after the Balkh River (in Greek transliteration Βάκτρος ) from underlying Bāxtri- , itself meaning 'she who divides', etymologically from

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1896-536: A skilled birth attendant increased from 0% in 2005 to 20% in 2011. In 2018 Dr.Khalilullah Hekmati was appointed the Public Health Director which was followed by positive changes in the Health sector. The overall literacy rate (6+ years of age) increased from 12% in 2005 to 23% in 2011. The overall net enrolment rate (6–13 years of age) increased from 22% in 2005 to 46% in 2011. As of 2020, the total population of

2054-497: A smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation. In ancient Zoroastrian eschatology , a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken, and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant, Azi Dahaka , will break free and terrorize

2212-523: A term for part of the city was Zariaspa ( Ancient Greek : Ζαρίασπα), which may derive from the important Zoroastrian fire temple Azar-i-Asp or from a Median name * Ζaryāspa- meaning "having gold-coloured horses". The nickname of Balkh is "the Mother of All Cities". Balkh was earlier considered to be the first city to which the ancient Iranic peoples moved from north of the Amu Darya (also known as

2370-405: A two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and daily illuminated world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night. According to Zoroastrian cosmology , in articulating

2528-723: A vassal of the Seljuks. The next year, he marched against rebellious Oghuz Turks from Khuttal and Tukharistan . But he was defeated twice and was captured after a second battle in Merv. The Oghuzs looted Khorasan after their victory. Balkh was nominally ruled by Mahmud Khan, the former khan of Western Karakhanids, but the real power was held by Muayyid al-Din Ay Aba, amir of Nishabur for three years. Sanjar finally escaped from captivity and returned to Merv through Termez . He died in 1157 and control of Balkh passed to Mahmud Khan until his death in 1162. It

2686-400: A woman known only as the khatun (lady) of Davud, from 848 appointed governor of Balkh, had taken over from him with "particular responsibility for the city and people" while he was busy building himself an elaborate pleasure palace called Nawshǎd (New Joy). In 1220 Genghis Khan sacked Balkh, butchered its inhabitants and levelled all the buildings capable of defence – treatment to which it

2844-486: Is Angra Mainyu ( 𐬀𐬢𐬭𐬀⸱𐬨𐬀𐬌𐬥𐬌𐬌𐬎 ), who is personified as a destructive spirit and the adversary of all things that are good. As such, the Zoroastrian religion combines a dualistic cosmology of good and evil with an eschatological outlook predicting the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazda over evil . Opinions vary among scholars as to whether Zoroastrianism is monotheistic , polytheistic , henotheistic , or

3002-530: Is Behdin , meaning "of the good religion", deriving from beh < Middle Persian weh 'good' + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā ". In the Zoroastrian liturgy , this term is used as a title for a lay individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony, in contrast to the priestly titles of osta , osti , ervad (hirbod), mobed and dastur . The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship

3160-613: Is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra . He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati . The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna , which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna , meaning "worship, devotion". In English , an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today

3318-404: Is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to participate actively in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to its incarnation at the birth of the child, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. Prior to the splitting off of the urvan , the fravashi participates in

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3476-477: Is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama , who is more commonly referred to by the name Zoroaster ( Greek : Ζωροάστρις Zōroastris ). Among the world's oldest organized faiths, its adherents exalt an uncreated , benevolent , and all-wise deity known as Ahura Mazda ( 𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬋 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬃 ), who is hailed as the supreme being of the universe. Opposed to Ahura Mazda

3634-466: Is at the Chinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by

3792-511: Is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici . The term Mazdaism ( / ˈ m æ z d ə . ɪ z əm / ) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system. Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism started as an Indo-Iranian polytheistic religion: according to Yujin Nagasawa, "like

3950-818: Is completed, which "will irrigate 500,000 hectares of land in Balkh, Jawzjan and Faryab provinces." This will significantly increase Balkh's economy and population as many Afghans from other parts of the country will move to the province for employment purposes. On October 5, 2018, in Washington, D.C. , Afghan officials signed a 30-year contract involving a $ 56 million investment by investment group Centar and its operating company Afghan Gold and Minerals Co. for exploration of an area covering 500 square km for copper, with development of mining due to begin thereafter. The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 8% in 2005 to 15% in 2011. The percentage of births attended by

4108-420: Is completely dilapidated and uninhabited, but anyone seeing it would think it to be inhabited because of the solidity of its construction (for it was a vast and important city), and its mosques and colleges preserve their outward appearance even now, with the inscriptions on their buildings incised with lapis-blue paints." It was not reconstructed until 1338. It was captured by Tamerlane in 1389 and its citadel

4266-555: Is correct. The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are the Gathas , Yasna , Visperad and the Vendidad , of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith. Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called

4424-403: Is divided into 15 districts. The locals of Balkh take great pride in their sporting history and culture. Every Nowruz (Persian New Year), Balkh is the site of many sporting events. Buzkashi is a traditional horse riding sport of the region and is very popular in this province. Kurash or traditional wrestling is also a popular sport in the province. However, the most popular presently and for

4582-412: Is found in the writings of the geographer Ibn Hawqal , an Arab traveler of the 10th century, who describes Balkh as built of clay, with ramparts and six gates, and extending for half a parasang . He also mentions a castle and a mosque. A large number of Sanskrit medical, pharmacological, and toxicological texts were translated into Arabic under the patronage of Khalid, the vizier of Al-Mansur. Khalid

4740-540: Is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within. Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by

4898-433: Is generally a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. Asha, is the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda. It is the cosmic order and is the antithesis of chaos, which is evident as druj , falsehood and disorder, that comes from Angra Mainyu. The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in

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5056-488: Is in conflict with the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, the representation of evil, darkness, and deceit. Angru Mainyu's goal is to tempt humans away from Ahura Mazda. Notably, Angra Mainyu is not a creation of Ahura Mazda but an independent entity. The belief in Ahura Mazda, the "Lord of Wisdom" who is considered an all-encompassing Deity and the only existing one, is the foundation of Zoroastrianism. Mitra , also called Mithra ,

5214-491: Is limited to natural forces held as emanations of asha by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism. Although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and those who believe that Zoroaster was vegetarian. Zoroastrianism is not entirely uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having

5372-617: Is located at the north of the site and is oval in shape, having an area of around 1,500 by 1,000 m2 (c. 150 hectares) and to the south is the lower town. Another mound of the site, known as Tepe Zargaran, and the Northern Fortification Wall of Balkh, were occupied at a large extension in Achaemenid times ( Yaz III period, c. 540-330 BC). Since the Iranic people built one of their first kingdoms in Balkh, some scholars believe that it

5530-402: Is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness). Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj , which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as

5688-462: Is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will , and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts. On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, whereupon the experiences of life in

5846-402: Is not wholly perfect and that Zoroastrianism instead has its "own form of monotheism" which combines elements of dualism and polytheism. Farhang Mehr asserts that Zoroastrianism is principally monotheistic with some dualistic elements. Lenorant and Chevallier assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having

6004-448: Is omniscient but not omnipotent. Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, while Angra Mainyu , (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"), the destructive spirit/mentality, existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as

6162-414: Is part of Bactria. Balkh is well known to Buddhists as the hometown of Trapusa and Bahalika , two merchants who, according to scripture, became Buddha 's first disciples. They were the first to offer Buddha food after he attained enlightenment, and in return Buddha gave them eight of his hairs to remember him by. According to some accounts, Trapusa and Bahalika returned to Balkh, and built two stupas in

6320-520: Is particularly known for its archeological sites, which attest the presence of many different civilizations that influenced the town's society in various eras. The Belgian-French explorer and spiritualist Alexandra David-Néel associated Balkh with Shambhala , a mythical kingdom that features prominently in ancient Tibetan Buddhism , and also offered the Persian Sham-i-Bala ( lit.   ' elevated candle ' ) as an etymology of its name. In

6478-527: Is today Iran and into the north-western Indian Subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and India ) around 2500–2000 BCE. Later, it became the northern province of the Achaemenid Empire . It was in these regions, where the fertile soil of the mountainous country is surrounded by the Turanian desert, that the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) was said to have been born and gained his first adherents. Avestan ,

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6636-649: Is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by the Islamic Republic of Iran . The Avesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect of Avestan . The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in many Pahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with

6794-405: Is written in the Avesta as Bāxδi ( Avestan : 𐬠𐬁𐬑𐬜𐬌‎ ) . From this came the intermediate form Bāxli , Sanskrit Bahlīka (also Balhika ) for "Bactrian", and by transposition the modern Persian Balx , i.e. Balkh , and Armenian Bahl . This same root entered the Greek language as Baktra ( Ancient Greek : Βάκτρα), often written in the form Bactra . An earlier name for Balkh or

6952-617: The Denkart , Tansar-nāma , Ardāy Wirāz Nāmag , Bundahsin , Zand-i Wahman yasn or the transmitted oral tradition. As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax (identified with a Vologases of the Arsacid dynasty ), an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During the Sassanid Empire , Ardeshir ordered Tansar, his high priest , to finish the work that King Valax had started. Shapur I sent priests to locate

7110-506: The Nava Vihara described by the Chinese traveller Xuanzang . There are the remains of many other topes (or stupas ) in the neighbourhood. The mounds of ruins on the road to Mazar-e Sharif probably represent the site of a city yet older than those on which stands the modern Balkh. Numerous places of interest are to be seen today aside from the ancient ruins and fortifications: The museum

7268-694: The Abbasids (next Sunni Caliphate dynasty) during the Abbasid Revolution . The city remained in Abbasid hands until 861 , when it was taken in 870 by the Saffarids captured it. In 870, Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar rebelled against Abbasid rule and founded the Saffarid dynasty at Sistan . He captured present Afghanistan and most of present Iran . His successor Amr ibn al-Layth , tried to capture Transoxiana from

7426-503: The Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident. Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu , at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation called Frashokereti and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in

7584-465: The Avestan period of the 2nd millennium BCE, but was first recorded in the mid-6th century BCE. For the following millennium, it was the official religion of successive Iranian polities, beginning with the Achaemenid Empire , which formalized and institutionalized many of its tenets and rituals, and ending with the Sasanian Empire , which revitalized the faith and standardized its teachings. In

7742-726: The Islamic Caliphate , the Yazata were often framed as " angels " to counter accusation of polytheism ( shirk ). According to the Avesta The Yazata assist Ahura Mazda in his battle against the evil spirit, and are hypostases of moral or physical aspects of creation. The yazatas collectively are "the good powers under Ahura Mazda", who is "the greatest of the yazatas". Yazatas are further divided into Amesha Spentas, their "ham-kar" or "Collaborators" who are Lower Ranking divinities, and also certain healing plants, primordial creatures,

7900-706: The Kingdom of Israel during the Assyrian captivity . This account is discussed in the works of the Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi , who wrote that the arrival and establishment of the Jews in Balkh had occurred in light of Sennacherib's campaign in the Levant . Additionally, a number of geographers from the Arab world attested the existence of a monument called Bāb al-Yahūd ( lit.   ' Gate of

8058-465: The Kshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"), being resurrected to immortality. Zoroastrian cosmography , which refers to the description of the structure of the cosmos in Zoroastrian literature and theology, involves a primary division of the cosmos into heaven and earth. The heaven is composed of three parts: the lower-most part, which is where the fixed stars may be found; the middle part, where

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8216-669: The Maimana Khanate . In 1751, Balkh was captured by Ahmad Shah Durrani of the Durrani Empire . The area of Balkh was governed by the Uzbek Qataghan dynasty, with its capital in Khulm , for the majority of the early nineteenth century, and only nominally acknowledged Kabul's suzerainty. During this time, the Qataghan dynasty also competed with Bukhara in interdynastic conflicts throughout

8374-579: The Proto-Indo-European root * bhag- 'to divide' (whence also Avestan bag- and Old Indic bháj- ). The Bactrian language name of the city was βαχλο, i.e. Bakhlo . In Middle Persian texts , it was named Baxl, i.e. Bakhl ( Middle Persian : 𐭡𐭠𐭧𐭫 ). The name of the province or country also appears in the Old Persian inscriptions (B.h.i 16; Dar Pers e.16; Nr. a.23) as Bāxtri , i.e. Bakhtri ( Old Persian : 𐎲𐎠𐎧𐎫𐎼𐎡𐏁 ). It

8532-526: The Rig Veda , asura denotes the "older gods", such as the "Father Asura", Varuna , and Mitra , who originally ruled over the primeval undifferentiated Chaos." Ahura Mazda , also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, Harzoo, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmz, is the creator deity and the supreme god in Zoroastrianism. Ahura Mazda stands for the dual deity Mitrāˊ-Váruṇā of the Hindu holy book known as

8690-541: The Rigveda . According to scholars, Ahura Mazda is an uncreated, omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God who has created the spiritual and material existences out of infinite light, and maintains the cosmic law of Asha. He is the first and most invoked spirit in Yasna , and is unrivaled, has no equals and presides over all creation. In Avesta, Ahura Mazda is the only true God, and the representation of goodness, light, and truth. He

8848-488: The Romans (190 BCE). The Greco-Bactrians were so powerful that they were able to expand their territory as far as India: The Greco-Bactrians used Greek language for administrative purposes, and the local Bactrian language was also Hellenized, as suggested by its adoption of the Greek alphabet and Greek loanwords. In turn, some of these words were also borrowed by modern Pashto , the language of Afghanistan. The weakness of

9006-649: The Samanids , who were nominally vassals of Abbasids, but he was defeated and captured by Ismail Samani at Battle of Balkh in 900. He was sent to the Abbasid Caliph as a prisoner and was executed in 902. The power of Saffarids was diminished and they became vassals of the Samanids. Thus Balkh now passed to them. Samanid rule in Balkh lasted until 997, when their former subordinates, the Ghaznavids , captured it. In 1006, Balkh

9164-493: The Second Anglo-Afghan War : "a considerable colony of Jews, who have a separate quarter of the village to themselves, and appeared, so far as we could judge, to be fair-looking men with most unmistakably Jewish features ." Hiwi al-Balkhi , a 9th-century exegete and Bible critic , was born in Balkh and is widely believed to have been a Bukharan Jew , at least by ethnicity , as some scholars have asserted that he

9322-424: The "world's first proponent of ecology." The Avesta and other texts call for the protection of water, earth, fire, and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion: "It is not surprising that Mazdaism...is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13)." However, this particular assertion

9480-521: The 11th century, when Jews were forced to maintain a garden for Mahmud of Ghazni and pay a minority tax of 500 dirhams . According to Jewish oral history , under Timur of the Timurid Empire , the Jews of Balkh were given a gated city quarter of their own to live in. There was still a substantial Jewish community in Balkh as late as 1885, as attested by the British administrator Charles Yate following

9638-479: The 1640s. Nevertheless, Balkh was ruled by the Mughal Empire from 1641 and turned into a subah (imperial top-level province) in 1646 by Shah Jahan , only to be lost in 1647, just like the neighboring Badakhshan Subah . Balkh was the government seat of Aurangzeb in his youth. In 1736 it was conquered by Nader Shah . After his assassination, local Uzbek Hadji Khan declared the independence of Balkh in 1747, under

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9796-579: The 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their " dualism " and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in

9954-412: The 7th century CE, the rise of Islam and the ensuing Muslim conquest of Iran marked the beginning of the decline of Zoroastrianism. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims in the nascent Rashidun Caliphate prompted much of the community to migrate to the Indian subcontinent , where they were granted asylum and became the progenitors of today's Parsis . Once numbering in the millions,

10112-405: The Achaemenids. After Darius III of Persia was defeated by Alexander the Great and killed in the ensuing chaos, his murderer Bessus , the satrap of Bactria, tried to organize a national resistance based on his satrapie but was captured by other warlords and delivered to Alexander. He was then tortured and killed. Alexander the Great conquered Sogdiana and Persia. However, in the south, beyond

10270-453: The Amesha Spenta and with the help of "other ahuras ". These divine beings called Amesha Spentas , support him and are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality. Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind and interacts with creation through these bounteous/holy divinities. In addition to these, He is assisted by a league of countless divinities called Yazatas , meaning "worthy of worship." Each Yazata

10428-422: The Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples. The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and

10586-430: The Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals. High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of the Mobads with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in the Khordeh Avesta . A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through the Navjote /Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during

10744-471: The Avesta, a compendium of sacred texts assembled over several centuries. Its oldest and most central component are the Gathas , purported to be the direct teachings of Zoroaster and his account of conversations with Ahura Mazda. These writings are part of a major section of the Avesta called the Yasna , which forms the core of Zoroastrian liturgy. Zoroaster's religious philosophy divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism into emanations of

10902-455: The Caliphate of Uthman , 644–656 AD). Attracted by the grandeur and wealth of Balkh, they attacked it in 645 AD. It was only in 653 when Arab commander al-Ahnaf raided the town again and compelled it to pay tribute. The Arab hold over the town, however, remained tenuous. The area was brought under Arab control only after it was reconquered by Muawiya in 663 AD. Prof. Upasak describes the effect of this conquest in these words: "The Arabs plundered

11060-427: The Chinese Emperor Wu Di was informed of the level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana , Bactria and Parthia , and became interested in developing commercial relationship with them: These contacts immediately led to the dispatch of multiple embassies from the Chinese, which helped to develop the Silk Road . As of January 2022, clashes between Taliban and guerrilla bands have been reported in

11218-409: The Daena. Traditionally, the manthras (similar to the Hindu sacred utterance mantra ) prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil. Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle of Asha , believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed

11376-530: The Earth and which was the first in a chain of 2,244 mountains which, together, encircled the Earth. Although the planets are not described in early Zoroastrian sources, they entered Zoroastrian thought in the Middle Persian period: they were demonized and took on the names Anāhīd (Pahlavi for Venus ), Tīr ( Mercury ), Wahrām ( Mars ), Ohrmazd ( Jupiter ), and Kēwān ( Saturn ). Individual judgment at death

11534-651: The Greco-Bactrian kingdom, it was ruled by Indo-Scythians , Parthians , Indo-Parthians , Kushan Empire , Indo-Sassanids , Kidarites , Hephthalite Empire and Sassanid Persians before the arrival of the Arabs . Bactrian documents - in the Bactrian language , written from the fourth to eighth centuries - consistently evoke the name of local deities, such as Kamird and Wakhsh, for example, as witnesses to contracts. The documents come from an area between Balkh and Bamiyan , which

11692-695: The Greco-Bactrians was shown by its sudden and complete overthrow, first by the Sakas , and then by the Yuezhi (who later became known as Kushans ), who had conquered Bactria by the time of the visit of the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian (circa 127 BCE), who had been sent by the Han emperor to investigate lands to the west of China. Under the Sassanids the province would become part of the area known as Khorasan . Kujula Kadphises ,

11850-609: The Guishuang xihou (or prince) of the Da Yuezhi, united the region in the early 1st century and laid the foundations for the powerful, but short-lived, Kushan Empire (1st to 3rd century CE), which was then overcome by the Sassanians from Persia. The name Daxia appears in Chinese from the 3rd century BCE to designate a mythical kingdom to the West, possibly a consequence of the first contacts with

12008-581: The Jews ' ) and a settlement called al- Yahūdiyya at the site of Balkh. Some Muslims believe that the Israelite prophet Jeremiah fled to Balkh during the Babylonian captivity and that the Israelite prophet Ezekiel was buried there, though Jews revere Ezekiel's Tomb in modern-day Iraq as the site of his final resting place. Balkh's Jewish community was further noted in the Ghaznavid Empire during

12166-613: The Oxus in Greek), between 2000 and 1500 BC. However it was only recently that archaeological remains before 500 BC were found by French archaeologists led by Johanna Lhullier and Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento in the section called Bala Hissar, which is the citadel of the site. They dated this first settlement to the Early Iron Age ( Yaz I period, c.  1500 -1000 BC) continuing until pre-Achaemenid times ( Yaz II period, c. 1000-540 BC). Bala Hissar

12324-734: The Oxus, he met strong resistance. After two years of war Bactria was occupied by the Macedonians, but Alexander never successfully subdued the people. After Alexander's death, the Macedonian Empire was eventually divided up between several generals in Alexander's army. Bactria became part of Seleucus I , the founder of the Seleucid Empire . "The famed Bactrian Empire of a thousand cities, wallowing in wealth (opulentissimum illud mille urbium Bactrianum imperium)" The many difficulties against which

12482-642: The Seleucid kings had to fight and the attacks of Ptolemy II of Egypt gave Diodotus, satrap of Bactria , the opportunity to declare independence (about 255 BCE) and conquer Sogdiana . He was the founder of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . Diodotus and his successors were able to maintain themselves against the attacks of the Seleucids—particularly from Antiochus III the Great , who was ultimately defeated by

12640-653: The Valley. Whatever it be, their Kashmiri origin is undoubted and this also explains the deep interest of the Barmaks, in later years, in Kashmir, for we know they were responsible for inviting several scholars and physicians from Kashmir to the Court of Abbasids." Prof. Maqbool also refers to the descriptions of Kashmir contained in the report prepared by the envoy of Yahya bin Barmak. He surmises that

12798-467: The Yazatas Mithra , Sraosha , and Rashnu , where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing their Daena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down

12956-404: The Zoroastrian creation myth , there is one universal, transcendent , all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity Ahura Mazda, or the "Wise Lord" ( Ahura meaning "Lord" and Mazda meaning "Wisdom" in Avestan ). Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of the Gathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also proclaims that Ahura Mazda

13114-588: The ancient city was also known to the Persians as Zariaspa and to the Greeks as Bactra , giving its name to Bactria . As such, it was famously known as the capital of Bactria or Tokharistan . The Italian explorer and writer Marco Polo described Balkh as "a noble city and a great seat of learning" prior to the Mongol conquests . Most of the town now consists of ruined buildings, situated some 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from

13272-454: The ancient wall of the town, which once encircled it, stands partially. Nava-Vihara stands in ruins, near Takhta-i-Rustam. In 726, the Umayyad governor Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri rebuilt Balkh and installed in it an Arab garrison, while in his second governorship, a decade later, he transferred the provincial capital there. The Umayyad period lasted until 747, when Abu Muslim captured it for

13430-492: The antithesis of existence through choice. In this schema of asha versus druj , mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counter action . Throughout the Gathas , Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extreme asceticism

13588-526: The area of Balkh Province were considered a part of various historical regions in history including Ariana and Greater Khorasan . The province serves today as Afghanistan 's second but main gateway to Central Asia , the other being Sherkhan Bandar in the Kunduz Province . Balkh Province borders Jowzjan , Sar-e Pol , Samangan and Kunduz provinces, and the Surxondaryo Region of Uzbekistan to

13746-596: The area. Only through the conquests of the Emirate of Kabul 's Dost Mohammad Khan in the 1850s (see also; Afghan Conquest of Balkh ), followed by those of Abdur Rahman Khan in 1888, did the region of "little Turkestan" to the south of the Amu Darya (also known as Oxus River) become a permanent part of Afghanistan. By 1885, Charles Yate reported that the city was "nothing but a vast ruin" and that there were no more than 500 houses, occupied mostly by "Afghan settlers" and with "very few Usbegs" (i.e. Uzbeks). In 1866, after

13904-420: The basis of ritual life. In Zoroastrian cosmogony , water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters (re. which conception see Apam Napat ). A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., of druj . Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute

14062-453: The choice between Asha (truth, cosmic order), the principle of righteousness or "rightness" that is promoted and embodied by Ahura Mazda, and Druj (falsehood, deceit), the essential nature of Angra Mainyu that expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy. Thus, the central moral precepts of the religion are good thoughts ( hwnata ), good words, ( hakhta ) and good deeds ( hvarshta ), which are recited in many prayers and ceremonies. Many of

14220-403: The compilers recognized the remnants of the former Jama Masjid ( Persian : جَامع مَسجد , romanized :  Jama‘ Masjid , Friday Mosque). The outer walls, mostly in utter disrepair, were estimated about 6.5–7 miles (10.5–11.3 km) in perimeter. In the south-east, they were set high on a mound or rampart, which indicated a Mongol origin to the compilers. The fort and citadel to

14378-427: The conflict. The main representative of Asha in this conflict is Spenta Mainyu , the creative spirit/mentality. Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. He created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual ( menog ) and 3,000 years later, the physical ( getig ). Ahura Mazda then created Gayomard , the archetypical perfect man, and Gavaevodata ,

14536-424: The current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire. The Avesta was "composed at different times, providing a series of snapshots of the religion that allow historians to see how it changed over time". According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought to Vishtaspa . Here, two copies were created, one which

14694-527: The domain of the moon is located, and the upper part, which is the domain of the sun and unreachable by Ahirman. Further above the highest level of the heaven/sky includes regions described as the Endless Lights, as well as the Thrones of Amahraspandān and Ohrmazd. Although this is the basic framework which occurs in Avestan texts, later Zoroastrian literature would elaborate on this picture by further subdividing

14852-420: The druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path. There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity, and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of both men and women. Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate

15010-463: The envoy could have possibly visited Kashmir during the reign of Samgramapida II (797–801). Reference has been made to sages and arts. The Arabs managed to bring Balkh under their control only in 715 AD, in spite of strong resistance offered by the Balkh people during the Umayyad period. Qutayba ibn Muslim al-Bahili , an Arab General was Governor of Khurasan and the east from 705 to 715. He established

15168-575: The expansion of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and then is used by the explorer Zhang Qian in 126 BCE to designate Bactria. The reports of Zhang Qian were put in writing in the Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian") by Sima Qian in the 1st century BCE. They describe an important urban civilization of about one million people, living in walled cities under small city kings or magistrates. Daxia

15326-664: The five daily Gāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of the Zoroastrian calendar , which can differ from community to community. Zoroastrian prayers, called manthras , are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil. Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditional topi , scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which

15484-448: The focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies. In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra , Aredvi Sura Anahita , Verethragna and Tishtrya , alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within

15642-423: The former madrasah ( Arabic : مَـدْرَسَـة , school). The town was garrisoned as of 1911 by a few thousand irregulars ( kasidars ), the regular troops of Afghan Turkestan being cantoned at Takhtapul , near Mazari Sharif. The gardens to the north-east contained a caravanserai that formed one side of a courtyard, which was shaded by a group of chenar trees Platanus orientalis . A project of modernization

15800-479: The fravashis of the dead, and certain prayers that are themselves considered holy. The Amesha Spentas and their "ham-kar" or "collaborator" Yazatas are as follows: In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha. In the Gathas , the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged

15958-544: The gods Mithra and Anahita . Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos". Brian Arthur Brown states that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism". Economist Mario Ferrero suggests that Zoroastrianism transitioned from polytheism to monotheism due to political and economic pressures. In

16116-494: The good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-called Towers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of the Indian subcontinent , in locations where it is not illegal and diclofenac poisoning has not led to

16274-401: The highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations ( Amesha Spenta ) and the other ahuras ( Yazata ) that support Ahura Mazda. Daena ( din in modern Persian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in

16432-596: The impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both. Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual ( menog ) and physical ( getig ). Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines and temples have been

16590-446: The interior and four passages have been pierced below from the outside, which probably lead to them. The base of the building is constructed of sun-dried bricks about 60 cm (2.0 ft) square and 100 to 130 mm (3.9 to 5.1 in) thick. The Takht-e Rustam is wedge-shaped in plan with uneven sides. It is apparently built of pisé mud (i.e. mud mixed with straw and puddled). It is possible that in these ruins we may recognize

16748-509: The king of Balkh at the time had fled to nearby Badakshan . The most remarkable Buddhist monastery was the Nava Vihara ("New Temple"), which possessed a gigantic statue of Gautama Buddha . Located near the city of Balkh, it served as a pilgrimage centre for political leaders who came from far and wide to pay homage to it. Shortly before the Arab conquest , the monastery became a Zoroastrian fire-temple . A curious reference to this building

16906-697: The language of the oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta , was one of the old Iranian languages , and is the oldest attested member of the Eastern Iranian branch of the Iranian language family. It is suggested by E. Herzfeld that Bactria once belonged to the Median empire . It was annexed by the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BCE and together with Margiana it formed the twelfth satrapy of

17064-617: The last 50 years has been football , this was evident in the Balkh team Simorgh Alborz F.C. finishing runners up in the inaugural Afghan Premier League and in their contributions to the National Team. Balkh Balkh is a town in the Balkh Province of Afghanistan . It is located approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the northwest of the provincial capital city Mazar-i-Sharif and approximately 74 kilometres (46 mi) to

17222-438: The later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual. After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear their sedreh (ritual shirt) and kushti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though reformist Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers. Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray

17380-481: The legendary Assyrian king Ninus had defeated a Bactrian king named Oxyartes in ca. 2140 BC, or some 1000 years before the Trojan War . Ever since the discovery of cuneiform enabled actual Assyrian records to be deciphered in the 19th century, however, historians have ascribed little value to the Greek account. According to some writers, Bactria was the homeland of Indo-European tribes who moved south-west into what

17538-399: The life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path. All physical creation ( getig )

17696-403: The like. Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods such as spirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption of fortified wine , Haoma , mang , and other ritual aids. In Zoroastrianism, water ( aban ) and fire ( atar ) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered

17854-452: The looting. On March 9, 2023, the Taliban appointed Governor of Balkh Mohammad Dawood Muzammil was killed in a bomb blast. The earlier Buddhist constructions have proved more durable than the Islamic buildings. The Top-Rustam is 46 m (50 yd) in diameter at the base and 27 m (30 yd) at the top, circular and about 15 m (49 ft) high. Four circular vaults are sunk in

18012-452: The lowest part of heaven to achieve a total of six or seven layers. The Earth itself was described as possessing three primary mountains: Mount Hukairiia, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the star Sadwēs; Mount Haraitī, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the sun and the moon, and the greatest of them all, the Harā Bərəz whose peak was located at the center of

18170-470: The maintenance of creation led by Ahura Mazda. During the life of a given individual, the fravashi acts as a source of inspiration to perform good actions and as a spiritual protector. The fravashis of ancestors cultural, spiritual, and heroic, associated with illustrious bloodlines, are venerated and can be called upon to aid the living. The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words

18328-442: The material world are collected for use in the continuing battle for good in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation ; albeit Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India, among other currently non-traditional opinions, believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism. Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as

18486-476: The monks residing there". The Arab attacks had little effect on the normal ecclesiastical life in the monasteries or Balkh Buddhist population outside. Buddhism continued to flourish with their monasteries as the centres of Buddhist learning and training. Scholars, monks and pilgrims from China, India and Korea continued to visit this place. Several revolts were made against the Arab rule in Balkh. The Arabs' control over Balkh did not last long as it soon came under

18644-469: The natural world—the ahura and the daeva ; the former class consisting of divinities to be revered and the latter class consisting of divinities to be rejected and condemned. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator and sustaining force of the universe, working in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm) through the Amesha Spenta ,

18802-486: The north-east were built well above the town on a barren mound and were walled and moated. There was, however, little left of them but the remains of a few pillars. The Green Mosque ( Persian : مَسجد سَبز , romanized :  Masjid Sabz ), named for its green-tiled dome (see photograph top right corner) and said to be the tomb of the Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa , had nothing but the arched entrance remaining of

18960-404: The north; making it the only province of Afghanistan to share a border with Uzbekistan. Balkh Province is situated in the northern part of Afghanistan, bordering Turkmenistan in the north-west, bordering Uzbekistan in the north, Tajikistan in the north-east, Kunduz Province in the east, Samangan Province in the south-east, Sar-e Pol Province in the south-west and Jowzjan Province in

19118-532: The people of the Balkh. He was deposed and his son was placed in his position. Nazak Tarkhan is also said to have murdered not only the Chief Priest but also his sons. Only a young son was saved. He was taken by his mother to Kashmir where he was given training in medicine, astronomy and other sciences. Later they returned to Balkh. Prof. Maqbool Ahmed observes "One is tempted to think that the family originated from Kashmir, for in time of distress, they took refuge in

19276-426: The population is male and 49% is female. The major ethnic groups living in Balkh province are Tajiks and Pashtuns followed by Uzbek, Hazaras, Turkman, Arab and Baluch. Dari is spoken by about 50% of the population and 58% of the villages. The second most frequent language is Pashto, spoken by the majorities in 266 villages representing 27% of the population, followed by Turkmani (11.9%) and Uzbeki (10.7%). Balkh province

19434-457: The practices and beliefs of ancient Iranian religion can still be seen in Zoroastrianism, such as reverence for nature and its elements, such as water ( aban ). Fire ( atar ) is held by Zoroastrians to be particularly sacred as a symbol of Ahura Mazda himself , serving as a focal point of many ceremonies and rituals, and serving as the basis for Zoroastrian places of worship, which are known as fire temples . The name Zoroaster ( Ζωροάστηρ )

19592-403: The primordial bovine. While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evil daevas , and noxious creatures ( khrafstar ) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of

19750-476: The province On 9 March 2023, Daud Muzamil , the Taliban governor of Afghanistan's Balkh province was killed in a blast at his office. Like in other parts of Afghanistan, agriculture plays an important part of Balkh's economy. It is known for producing some of the sweetest melons and grapes . It is expected that the province will witness a major agriculture boost in the near future after the Qush Tepa Canal

19908-602: The province is about 1,509,183, which is a multi-ethnic and mostly Persian-speaking (63% Tajik, 20% Hazara) society. According to the Naval Postgraduate School : Balkh is ethnically diverse, including substantial Tajik , Hazara , Pashtuns , Arab , Uzbek , Turkmen , and Sunni Hazara (Kawshi) communities. According to the World Food Program Around 66% of the population of Balkh lives in rural districts while 34% lives in urban areas. Around 51% of

20066-473: The region in the early 5th century, and found Hinayana Buddhism prevalent in Shan Shan, Kucha , Kashgar , Osh, Udayana and Gandhara . Later, the Chinese monk Xuanzang (602–664 CE) visited Balkh in 630 CE, when it was a flourishing centre of Hinayana Buddhism. According to his memoirs, there were about a hundred Buddhist convents in the city or its vicinity at the time of his visit. There were 3,000 monks and

20224-520: The relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity . The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to

20382-702: The rest of the Zoroastrian texts, the Old Avesta does not teach monotheism". By contrast, Md. Sayem characterizes Zoroastrianism as being one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. Zoroastrians treat Ahura Mazda as the supreme god, but believe in lesser divinities known as Yazatas, who share some similarities with the angels in Abrahamic religions. These yazatas ("good agents") include Anahita , Sraosha , Mithra , Rashnu , and Tishtrya . Historian Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures; especially

20540-409: The right bank of the seasonally flowing Balkh River , at an elevation of about 365 metres (1,198 ft). While it is one of Afghanistan's ethnically diverse settlements, Tajiks account for a substantial portion of Balkh's populace and have continuously inhabited the site for millennia. The main language of the town is Dari , which is spoken by a significant majority. Balkh's surrounding region

20698-469: The rule of a local prince, a zealous Buddhist called Nazak (or Nizak) Tarkhan. He expelled the Arabs from his territories in 670 or 671. He is said to have not only reprimanded the Chief Priest (Barmak) of Nava-Vihara but beheaded him for embracing Islam. As per another account, when Balkh was conquered by the Arabs, the head priest of the Nava-Vihara had gone to the capital and became a Muslim. This displeased

20856-517: The scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks. Under Shapur II , Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while under Khosrow I , the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi. The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if the Middle Persian literature

21014-461: The sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protect by Mah , the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became the first human couple . Humans thus struggle in

21172-672: The south of the Amu Darya and the Afghanistan–Uzbekistan border . In 2021–2022, the National Statistics and Information Authority reported that the town had 138,594 residents. Listed as the eighth largest settlement in the country , unofficial 2024 estimates set its population at around 114,883 people. Historically, the site of present-day Balkh was held in considerably high regard due to its religious and political significance in Ariana . A hub of Zoroastrianism and Buddhism ,

21330-432: The status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine (though being reevaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia). It has been argued by Almut Hintze that this designation of monotheism

21488-480: The town and killed the people indiscriminately. It is said that they raided the famous Buddhist shrine of Nava-Vihara , which the Arab historians call 'Nava Bahara' and describe it as one of the magnificent places, which comprised a range of 360 cells around the high stupas'. They plundered the gems and jewels that were studded on many images and stupas and took away the wealth accumulated in the Vihara but probably did no considerable harm to other monastic buildings or to

21646-639: The upper Amu Darya (Oxus), in area covering ancient Bactria . Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for the area of Bakhlo (modern Balkh ), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Margu , the capital of which was Merv , in today's Turkmenistan. The early Greek historian Ctesias c. 400 BCE (followed by Diodorus Siculus ) alleged that

21804-587: The virtual extinction of scavenger birds. The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is the Yasna , which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involving Haoma . Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of the Visperad and Vendidad , but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism. The Yasna itself descended from Indo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in

21962-403: The way Buddha instructed. Balkh is therefore named after Bahalika, who is credited with introducing Buddhism to the city. This is reflected in literature, where the town has been called Balhika , Bahlika or Valhika . The first Buddhist monastery ( vihara ) at Balkh was built for Bahalika when he returned home after becoming a Buddhist monk. The Chinese pilgrim Faxian (337-422 CE) traveled to

22120-532: The west. The province covers an area of 16,840 km2. Nearly half of the province is mountainous or semi-mountainous terrain (48.7%) while half of the area (50.2%) is made up of flat land. The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia , dated to c.  2200 –1700 BCE, located in present-day Turkmenistan , northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan , centered on

22278-423: The work of druj . Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives. In Zoroastrian tradition, life

22436-471: The world's total Zoroastrian population is currently estimated to comprise between 100,000 and 200,000 people , with the majority of this figure residing in India (50,000–60,000), Iran (15,000–25,000), and North America (22,000). The religion is thought to be declining due to restrictions on conversion, strict endogamy , and low birth rates. The central beliefs and practices of Zoroastrianism are contained in

22594-482: The world. According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as the Saoshyant , will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which

22752-524: Was a practicing gnostic Christian . At the time of the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century, however, Balkh had provided an outpost of resistance and a safe haven for the Persian emperor Yazdegerd III who fled there from the armies of Umar . Later, in the 9th century, during the reign of Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar , Islam became firmly rooted in the local population. Arabs occupied Persia in 642 (during

22910-527: Was again subjected in the 14th century by Timur . Notwithstanding this, however, Marco Polo (probably referring to its past) could still describe it as "a noble city and a great seat of learning." For when Ibn Battuta visited Balkh around 1333 during the rule of the Kartids , who were Tadjik vassals of the Persia-based Mongol Ilkhanate until 1335, he described it as a city still in ruins: "It

23068-503: Was an affluent country with rich markets, trading in an incredible variety of objects, coming as far as Southern China. By the time Zhang Qian visited Daxia, there was no longer a major king, and the Bactrian were suzerains to the nomadic Yuezhi , who were settled to the north of their territory beyond the Oxus (Amu Darya). Overall Zhang Qian depicted a rather sophisticated but demoralized people who were afraid of war. Following these reports,

23226-692: Was captured by Karakhanids , but Ghaznavids recaptured it 1008. Finally, the Seljuks conquered Balkh in 1059. In 1115, it was occupied and looted by irregular Oghuz Turks . Between 1141 and 1142, Balkh was captured by Atsiz , Shah of Khwarezm , after the Seljuks were defeated by the Kara-Khitan Khanate at the Battle of Qatwan . Ahmad Sanjar decisively defeated a Ghurid army, commanded by Ala al-Din Husayn and he took him prisoner for two years before releasing him as

23384-624: Was captured by Khwarezmshahs in 1162, by the Kara Khitans in 1165, by the Ghurids in 1198 and again by Khwarezmshahs in 1206. Muhammad al-Idrisi , in the 12th century, speaks of its possessing a variety of educational establishments, and carrying on an active trade. There were several important commercial routes from the city, stretching as far east as India and China . The late 12th-century local chronicle The Merits of Balkh (Fada'il-i-Balkh) , by Abu Bakr Abdullah al-Wa'iz al-Balkhi , states that

23542-693: Was destroyed, but Shah Rukh , his successor, rebuilt the citadel in 1407. In 1506 Uzbeks entered Balkh under the command of Muhammad Shaybani . They were briefly expelled by the Safavids in 1510. Babur ruled Balkh between 1511 and 1512 as a vassal of the Persian Safavids . But he was defeated twice by the Khanate of Bukhara and was forced to retire to Kabul . Balkh was ruled by Bukhara except for Safavid rule between 1598 and 1601. The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan fruitlessly fought them there for several years in

23700-598: Was formerly the second largest museum in the country, but its collection has suffered from looting in recent times. The museum is also known as the Museum of the Blue Mosque, from the building it shares with a religious library. As well as exhibits from the ancient ruins of Balkh, the collection includes works of Islamic art including a 13th-century Quran , and examples of Afghan decorative and folk art . Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism ( Persian : دین زرتشتی Dīn-e Zartoshtī ), also called Mazdayasnā ( Avestan : 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬯𐬥𐬀 ) or Beh-dīn ( بهدین ),

23858-432: Was from this area that different waves of Iranic tribes spread to north-east Iran and Seistan region. The changing climate has led to desertification since antiquity, when the region was very fertile. Its foundation is mythically ascribed to Keyumars , the first king of the world in Persian legend ; and it is at least certain that, at a very early date, it was the rival of Ecbatana , Nineveh and Babylon . The city

24016-455: Was originally an Indo-Iranian god of "covenant, agreement, treaty, alliance, promise." Mitra is considered a being worthy of worship and is "characterized by riches". The Yazata (Avestan: 𐬫𐬀𐬰𐬀𐬙𐬀) are divine beings worshiped by song and sacrifice in Zoroastrianism, in accordance with the Avesta . The word ' Yazata' is derived from 'Yazdan', the Old Persian word for 'god', and literally means "divinity worthy of worship or veneration". As

24174-402: Was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta (written on 1200 ox-hides) was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong historical evidence for this and they remain contested despite affirmations from the Zoroastrian tradition, whether it be

24332-414: Was the son of a chief priest of a Buddhist monastery. Some of the family were killed when the Arabs captured Balkh; others including Khalid survived by converting to Islam. They would later come to be known as the Barmakids of Baghdad. Sennacherib , who reigned over the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 705 to 681 BCE, is said to have forcibly transferred some Israelites to Balkh after dispossessing them from

24490-416: Was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order ( druj ) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with Western and especially Christian notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept

24648-407: Was to be found here, a temple so rich it invited plunder. Alexander the Great married Roxana of Bactria after killing the king of Balkh in the 4th century BC, and brought the Greek culture and religion to the region. The city was one of the capitals of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and was besieged for three years by the Seleucid Empire under king Antiochus III the Great . After the demise of

24806-422: Was traditionally a center of Zoroastrianism . For a long time the city and country was the central seat of the dualistic Zoroastrian religion , the founder of which, Zoroaster, died within the walls according to the Persian poet Firdowsi . Armenian sources state that the Arsacid dynasty of the Parthian Empire established its capital in Balkh. There is a long-standing tradition that an ancient shrine of Anahita

24964-545: Was undertaken in 1934, in which eight streets were laid out, housing and bazaars built. Modern Balkh is a centre of the cotton industry, of the skins known commonly in the West as "Persian lamb" ( Karakul ), and for agricultural produce like almonds and melons. The site and the museum have suffered from looting and uncontrolled digging during the 1990s civil war . After the Taliban 's fall in 2001 some poor residents dug in an attempt to sell ancient treasures. The provisional Afghan government said in January 2002 that it had stopped

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