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67-532: The BET Hip Hop Awards are an annual awards show, airing on BET , showcasing hip hop performers, producers and music video directors. The awards ceremony began in 2006; it was held on November 12, 2006 at the Fox Theatre in Atlanta and was first aired November 15, hosted by comedian Katt Williams . The second ceremony was held on October 13, 2007 and aired on October 17 of the same year. Like its predecessor,

134-446: A fixed frame of reference (such as the fixed stars, Latin sidera , singular sidus ). Its average duration is 365.256 363 004 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 9.76 s) (at the epoch J2000.0 = January 1, 2000, 12:00:00 TT ). Today the mean tropical year is defined as the period of time for the mean ecliptic longitude of the Sun to increase by 360 degrees. Since the Sun's ecliptic longitude

201-618: A leap year there are 366 days. A leap year occurs every fourth year during which a leap day is intercalated into the month of February. The name "Leap Day" is applied to the added day. In astronomy, the Julian year is a unit of time defined as 365.25 days, each of exactly 86,400 seconds ( SI base unit ), totaling exactly 31,557,600 seconds in the Julian astronomical year. The Revised Julian calendar , proposed in 1923 and used in some Eastern Orthodox Churches , has 218 leap years every 900 years, for

268-721: A n / m e n ) and others the complete disappearance of a vowel (reduction to zero: could n o t → couldn't ). For the study of European languages, one of the most important instances of vowel gradation is the Indo-European ablaut, remnants of which can be seen in the English verbs r i de , r o de , r i dden , or fl y , fl ew , fl ow n . For simply learning English grammar, it is enough to note that these verbs are irregular , but understanding why they have unusual forms that seem irregular (and indeed why they are actually perfectly regular within their own terms) requires an understanding of

335-410: A n and m e n ). The difference does not need to be indicated in the spelling. There are many kinds of vowel gradation in English and other languages, which are discussed generally in the article apophony . Some involve a variation in vowel length (quantitative gradation: ph o tograph / ph o tography shows reduction of the first vowel to a schwa ), others in vowel coloring (qualitative gradation: m

402-402: A n , ph o tograph / ph o tography ). Confusingly, in some contexts, the terms 'ablaut', 'vowel gradation', 'apophony' and 'vowel alternation' are used synonymously, especially in synchronic comparisons, but historical linguists prefer to keep 'ablaut' for the specific Indo-European phenomenon, which is the meaning intended by the linguists who first coined the word. In Proto-Indo-European,

469-435: A person carrying a bundle of wheat denoting "harvest". Slavic besides godŭ "time period; year" uses lěto "summer; year". Astronomical years do not have an integer number of days or lunar months. Any calendar that follows an astronomical year must have a system of intercalation such as leap years. In the Julian calendar , the average (mean) length of a year is 365.25 days. In a non-leap year, there are 365 days, in

536-696: A reference event in the past (called the epoch ) as the beginning of the era. The Gregorian calendar era is the world's most widely used civil calendar . Its epoch is a 6th century estimate of the date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth . Two notations are used to indicate year numbering in the Gregorian calendar: the Christian " Anno Domini " (meaning "in the year of the Lord"), abbreviated AD; and " Common Era ", abbreviated CE, preferred by many of other faiths and none. Year numbers are based on inclusive counting , so that there

603-548: A single vowel in the parent language. In particular, the zero grade was often subject to modification from changes in the pronunciation of syllabic sonorants. For example, in Germanic, syllabic sonorants acquired an epenthetic -u- , thus converting the original zero grade to a new "u-grade" in many words. Thus, while ablaut survives in some form in all Indo-European languages, it became progressively less systematic over time. Ablaut explains vowel differences between related words of

670-550: A time interval in Julian years is a way to precisely specify an amount of time (not how many "real" years), for long time intervals where stating the number of ephemeris days would be unwieldy and unintuitive. By convention, the Julian year is used in the computation of the distance covered by a light-year . In the Unified Code for Units of Measure (but not according to the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics or

737-401: A verb is *bʰeydʰ- "to wait" (cf. "bide"). In the daughter languages, these came to be important markers of grammatical distinctions. The vowel change in the Germanic strong verb, for example, is the direct descendant of that seen in the Indo-European verb paradigm. Examples in modern English are the following: It was in this context of Germanic verbs that ablaut was first described, and this

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804-749: Is a 12-month period used for calculating annual financial statements in businesses and other organizations. In many jurisdictions, regulations regarding accounting require such reports once per twelve months, but do not require that the twelve months constitute a calendar year. For example, in Canada and India the fiscal year runs from April 1; in the United Kingdom it runs from April 1 for purposes of corporation tax and government financial statements, but from April 6 for purposes of personal taxation and payment of state benefits; in Australia it runs from July 1; while in

871-490: Is about 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. The mean tropical year is approximately 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds, using the modern definition ( = 365.24219 d × 86 400 s). The length of the tropical year varies a bit over thousands of years because the rate of axial precession is not constant. The anomalistic year is the time taken for the Earth to complete one revolution with respect to its apsides . The orbit of

938-524: Is an integral approximation to the year equaling 365 days, which wanders in relation to more exact years. Typically the vague year is divided into 12 schematic months of 30 days each plus 5 epagomenal days. The vague year was used in the calendars of Ethiopia , Ancient Egypt , Iran , Armenia and in Mesoamerica among the Aztecs and Maya . It is still used by many Zoroastrian communities. A heliacal year

1005-562: Is easily explained: the PIE root is *h 1 es- . In the singular, the stem is stressed, so it remains in the e-grade, and it takes the inflection -ti . In the plural, however, the inflection -énti was stressed, causing the stem to reduce to the zero grade: *h 1 es-énti → *h 1 s-énti . See main article: Indo-European copula . Some of the morphological functions of the various grades are as follows: e-grade: o-grade: zero-grade: lengthened grade: Many examples of lengthened-grade roots in

1072-427: Is measured with respect to the equinox, the tropical year comprises a complete cycle of the seasons and is the basis of solar calendars such as the internationally used Gregorian calendar . The modern definition of mean tropical year differs from the actual time between passages of, e.g., the northward equinox, by a minute or two, for several reasons explained below. Because of the Earth's axial precession , this year

1139-629: Is named after the 19th-century German astronomer and mathematician Friedrich Bessel . The following equation can be used to compute the current Besselian epoch (in years): The TT subscript indicates that for this formula, the Julian date should use the Terrestrial Time scale, or its predecessor, ephemeris time . The exact length of an astronomical year changes over time. Numerical value of year variation Mean year lengths in this section are calculated for 2000, and differences in year lengths, compared to 2000, are given for past and future years. In

1206-465: Is no "year zero". Years before the epoch are abbreviated BC for Before Christ or BCE for Before the Common Era . In Astronomical year numbering , positive numbers indicate years AD/CE, the number 0 designates 1 BC/BCE, −1 designates 2 BC/BCE, and so on. Other eras include that of Ancient Rome , Ab Urbe Condita ("from the foundation of the city ), abbreviated AUC; Anno Mundi ("year of

1273-466: Is not difficult to imagine it as a contraction of an older *ph 2 terés, pronounced perhaps [pɐterés] , as this combination of consonants and vowels would be possible in English as well. In other cases, however, the absence of a vowel strikes the speaker of a modern western European language as unpronounceable. To understand, one must be aware that there were a number of sounds that were consonants in principle but could operate in ways analogous to vowels:

1340-408: Is said to be from pre-Proto-Indo-European syncope in unaccented syllables, but in some cases the lack of accent does not cause zero grade: *deywó- , nominative plural *-es "god". There does not seem to be a rule governing the unaccented syllables that take zero grade and the ones that take stronger grades. It is still a matter of debate whether PIE had an original a-vowel at all. In later PIE,

1407-400: Is said to be in the "zero grade". Syllables with long vowels are said to be in "lengthened grade". (When the e -grade or the o -grade is referred to, the short vowel forms are meant.) A classic example of the five grades of ablaut in a single root is provided by the different case forms of two closely related Greek words. In the following table, an acute accent (´) marks the syllable carrying

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1474-467: Is still what most people primarily associate with the phenomenon. A fuller description of ablaut operating in English, German and Dutch verbs and of the historical factors governing these can be found at the article Germanic strong verb . The same phenomenon is displayed in the verb tables of Latin , Ancient Greek and Sanskrit . Examples of ablaut as a grammatical marker in Latin are the vowel changes in

1541-815: Is the accusative singular ; annī is genitive singular and nominative plural; annō the dative and ablative singular) is from a PIE noun *h₂et-no- , which also yielded Gothic aþn "year" (only the dative plural aþnam is attested). Although most languages treat the word as thematic *yeh₁r-o- , there is evidence for an original derivation with an *-r/n suffix, *yeh₁-ro- . Both Indo-European words for year, *yeh₁-ro- and *h₂et-no- , would then be derived from verbal roots meaning "to go, move", *h₁ey- and *h₂et- , respectively (compare Vedic Sanskrit éti "goes", atasi "thou goest, wanderest"). A number of English words are derived from Latin annus , such as annual , annuity , anniversary , etc.; per annum means "each year", annō Dominī means "in

1608-505: Is the time taken for astronomical objects to complete one orbit . For example, a year on Earth is the time taken for Earth to revolve around the Sun . Generally, a year is taken to mean a calendar year , but the word is also used for periods loosely associated with the calendar or astronomical year, such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle, such as

1675-413: Is the interval between the heliacal risings of a star. It differs from the sidereal year for stars away from the ecliptic due mainly to the precession of the equinoxes . The Sothic year is the heliacal year, the interval between heliacal risings, of the star Sirius . It is currently less than the sidereal year and its duration is very close to the Julian year of 365.25 days. The Gaussian year

1742-526: Is the sidereal year for a planet of negligible mass (relative to the Sun) and unperturbed by other planets that is governed by the Gaussian gravitational constant . Such a planet would be slightly closer to the Sun than Earth's mean distance. Its length is: The Besselian year is a tropical year that starts when the (fictitious) mean Sun reaches an ecliptic longitude of 280°. This is currently on or close to January 1. It

1809-531: Is the time taken for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to the same lunar node (a point where the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic). The year is associated with eclipses : these occur only when both the Sun and the Moon are near these nodes; so eclipses occur within about a month of every half eclipse year. Hence there are two eclipse seasons every eclipse year. The average duration of

1876-521: The Great Year . Due to the Earth's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and, consequently, vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring , summer , autumn , and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in

1943-444: The International Union of Geological Sciences , see below), the symbol a (without subscript) always refers to the Julian year, a j , of exactly 31 557 600 seconds . The SI multiplier prefixes may be applied to it to form "ka", "Ma", etc. Each of these three years can be loosely called an astronomical year . The sidereal year is the time taken for the Earth to complete one revolution of its orbit , as measured against

2010-463: The Proto-Indo-European noun *yeh₁r-om "year, season". Cognates also descended from the same Proto-Indo-European noun (with variation in suffix ablaut ) are Avestan yārǝ "year", Greek ὥρα ( hṓra ) "year, season, period of time" (whence " hour "), Old Church Slavonic jarŭ , and Latin hornus "of this year". Latin annus (a 2nd declension masculine noun; annum

2077-593: The United States the fiscal year of the federal government runs from October 1. An academic year is the annual period during which a student attends an educational institution . The academic year may be divided into academic terms , such as semesters or quarters. The school year in many countries starts in August or September and ends in May, June or July. In Israel the academic year begins around October or November, aligned with

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2144-409: The perigee of the Moon's orbit. This period is associated with the apparent size of the full moon , and also with the varying duration of the synodic month . The duration of one full moon cycle is: The lunar year comprises twelve full cycles of the phases of the Moon, as seen from Earth. It has a duration of approximately 354.37 days. Muslims use this for celebrating their Eids and for marking

2211-415: The seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked. A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth's orbital period, as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian calendar , or modern calendar, presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days, as do the Julian calendars . For the Gregorian calendar,

2278-424: The Earth is elliptical; the extreme points, called apsides, are the perihelion , where the Earth is closest to the Sun, and the aphelion , where the Earth is farthest from the Sun. The anomalistic year is usually defined as the time between perihelion passages. Its average duration is 365.259636 days (365 d 6 h 13 min 52.6 s) (at the epoch J2011.0). The draconic year, draconitic year, eclipse year, or ecliptic year

2345-498: The Proto-Indo-European stage of the language. Traces of ablaut are found in all modern Indo-European languages , though its prevalence varies greatly. The phenomenon of Indo-European ablaut was first recorded by Sanskrit grammarians in the later Vedic period (roughly 8th century BCE), and was codified by Pāṇini in his Aṣṭādhyāyī (4th century BCE), where the terms guṇa and vṛddhi were used to describe

2412-699: The United Kingdom, and 200 for pupils in Australia. In India the academic year normally starts from June 1 and ends on May 31. Though schools start closing from mid-March, the actual academic closure is on May 31 and in Nepal it starts from July 15. Schools and universities in Australia typically have academic years that roughly align with the calendar year (i.e., starting in February or March and ending in October to December), as

2479-619: The United States, notably Boston Latin School , may divide the year into five or more marking periods. Some state in defense of this that there is perhaps a positive correlation between report frequency and academic achievement. There are typically 180 days of teaching each year in schools in the US, excluding weekends and breaks, while there are 190 days for pupils in state schools in Canada, New Zealand and

2546-477: The average (mean) year length of 365.242 2222 days, close to the length of the mean tropical year, 365.242 19 days (relative error of 9·10). In the year 2800 CE, the Gregorian and Revised Julian calendars will begin to differ by one calendar day. The Gregorian calendar aims to ensure that the northward equinox falls on or shortly before March 21 and hence it follows the northward equinox year , or tropical year . Because 97 out of 400 years are leap years,

2613-595: The average length of the calendar year (the mean year) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days (97 out of 400 years are leap years). In English, the unit of time for year is commonly abbreviated as "y" or "yr". The symbol "a" (for Latin : annus , year) is sometimes used in scientific literature, though its exact duration may be inconsistent. English year (via West Saxon ġēar ( /jɛar/ ), Anglian ġēr ) continues Proto-Germanic *jǣran ( *j ē₁ ran ). Cognates are German Jahr , Old High German jār , Old Norse ár and Gothic jer , from

2680-404: The basic, inherent vowel of most syllables was a short e . Ablaut is the name of the process whereby this short e changed, becoming short o , long ē , long ō or sometimes disappearing entirely to leave no vowel at all. Thus, ablaut results in the alternation of the following sounds: If a syllable had a short e , it is said to be in the "e-grade" or "full grade". When it had no vowel, it

2747-662: The ceremony was also held at the Fox Theater in Atlanta, and was hosted by Katt Williams. The third ceremony premiered on October 23, 2008. This ceremony was hosted by popular R&B and hip hop artist T-Pain . The fourth ceremony was held on October 10, 2009 and was hosted by Mike Epps and aired on October 27. The fifth ceremony was held on October 2, 2010 (aired October 12) and was also by hosted Mike Epps. Epps hosted two additional years (2011 & 2012), and Snoop Dogg hosted in 2013, 2014, and 2015. Year A year

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2814-406: The development in the daughter languages is frequently far more complicated, and few reflect the original system as neatly as Greek. Various factors, such as vowel harmony , assimilation with nasals, or the effect of the presence of laryngeals in the Indo-European (IE) roots as well as their subsequent loss in most daughter languages, mean that a language may have several different vowels representing

2881-410: The disappearance of the laryngeal h 2 could leave an a-colouring and this may explain all occurrences of a in later PIE. However, some argue controversially that the e-grade could sometimes be replaced by an a-grade without the influence of a laryngeal, which might help to explain the vowels in class 6 Germanic verbs , for example. Although PIE had only this one, basically regular, ablaut sequence,

2948-407: The eclipse year is This term is sometimes erroneously used for the draconic or nodal period of lunar precession , that is the period of a complete revolution of the Moon's ascending node around the ecliptic: 18.612 815 932 Julian years ( 6 798 .331 019 days; at the epoch J2000.0). The full moon cycle is the time for the Sun (as seen from the Earth) to complete one revolution with respect to

3015-483: The examples above, Szemerényi's law affected the older sequences *ph 2 -tér-s and *n̥-péh 2 -tor-s, changing them to *ph 2 -tḗr and *n̥-péh 2 -tōr. Thus, these forms were originally in the regular, unlengthened e-grade and o-grade. Such lengthened vowels were, however, later grammaticalised and spread to other words in which the change did not occur. Nevertheless, there are examples of true lengthened grades, in which short e alternates with long ē . Examples are

3082-405: The four syllabic sonorants, the three laryngeals and the two semi-vowels: When u and i came in postvocalic positions, the result was a diphthong. Ablaut is nevertheless regular and looks like this: Thus, any of these could replace the ablaut vowel when it was reduced to the zero-grade: the pattern CVrC (for example, *bʰergʰ- ) could become CrC ( *bʰr̥gʰ- ). However, not every PIE syllable

3149-406: The grammar of the reconstructed proto-language . Ablaut is the oldest and most extensive single source of vowel gradation in the Indo-European languages and must be distinguished clearly from other forms of gradation, which developed later, such as Germanic umlaut ( m a n / m e n , g oo se / g ee se , l o ng / l e ngth ) or the results of modern English word-stress patterns ( m a n / wom

3216-485: The historical Jalali calendar , known as the Solar Hijri calendar (1925), is a purely solar calendar with an irregular pattern of leap days based on observation (or astronomical computation), aiming to place new year ( Nowruz ) on the day of vernal equinox (for the time zone of Tehran ), as opposed to using an algorithmic system of leap years. A calendar era assigns a cardinal number to each sequential year, using

3283-402: The language started to develop a more complex vowel system. Thus, it has often been speculated that an original e-grade underwent two changes in some phonetic environments: under certain circumstances, it changed to o (the o-grade) and in others, it disappeared entirely (the zero-grade). However, that is not certain: the phonetic conditions that controlled ablaut have never been determined, and

3350-543: The mean length of the Gregorian calendar year is 365.242 5 days; with a relative error below one ppm (8·10) relative to the current length of the mean tropical year ( 365.242 189 days) and even closer to the current March equinox year of 365.242 374 days that it aims to match. Historically, lunisolar calendars intercalated entire leap months on an observational basis. Lunisolar calendars have mostly fallen out of use except for liturgical reasons ( Hebrew calendar , various Hindu calendars ). A modern adaptation of

3417-486: The noun Laut "sound", and the prefix ab- , which indicates movement downwards or away, or deviation from a norm; thus the literal meaning is "sound reduction". It was coined in this sense in 1819 by the German linguist Jacob Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik , though the word had been used before him. In particular, the 17th-century grammarian Schottelius had used the word negatively to suggest that German verbs lacked

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3484-403: The paradigms of verbs and nouns. These were not the main markers of grammatical form, since the inflection system served this purpose, but they must have been significant secondary markers. An example of ablaut in the paradigm of the noun in PIE can be found in *pértus , from which the English words ford and (via Latin) port are derived (both via the zero-grade stem *pr̥t- ). An example in

3551-479: The perfect stem of verbs. Ablaut can often explain apparently random irregularities. For example, the verb "to be" in Latin has the forms est (he is) and sunt (they are). The equivalent forms in German are very similar: ist and sind . The same forms were present in Proto-Slavic : *estь and *sǫtь , and developed into e.g. Polish jest and są . The difference between singular and plural in these languages

3618-527: The phenomena now known respectively as the full grade and lengthened grade . In the context of European languages, the phenomenon was first described in the early 18th century by the Dutch linguist Lambert ten Kate , in his book Gemeenschap tussen de Gottische spraeke en de Nederduytsche ("Common aspects of the Gothic and Dutch languages", 1710). The term ablaut is borrowed from German, and derives from

3685-533: The position of the word stress may not have been a key factor at all. There are many counterexamples to the proposed rules: *deywós and its nominative plural *deywóes show pretonic and posttonic e-grade, respectively, and *wĺ̥kʷos has an accented zero grade. Many examples of lengthened grades, including those listed above, are not directly conditioned by ablaut. Instead, they are a result of sound changes like Szemerényi's law and Stang's law , which caused compensatory lengthening of originally short vowels. In

3752-533: The same language. For example: Ablaut also explains vowel differences between cognates in different languages. For the English-speaking non-specialist, a good reference work for quick information on IE roots, including the difference of ablaut grade behind related lexemes, is Watkins (2000). (Note that in discussions of lexis, Indo-European roots are normally cited in the e-grade, without any inflections.) In PIE, there were already ablaut differences within

3819-591: The second month of the Hebrew calendar. Some schools in the UK, Canada and the United States divide the academic year into three roughly equal-length terms (called trimesters or quarters in the United States), roughly coinciding with autumn, winter, and spring. At some, a shortened summer session, sometimes considered part of the regular academic year, is attended by students on a voluntary or elective basis. Other schools break

3886-451: The sophistication of the classics, but there is no hint of this disdain in Grimm or in modern scholarly usage. In English, the term became established through the 1845 translation of Bopp's Comparative Grammar . Vowel gradation is any vowel difference between two related words (such as ph o tograph [ˈf əʊ təgrɑːf] and ph o tography [f ə ˈtɒgrəfi]) or two forms of the same word (such as m

3953-475: The southern hemisphere experiences summer from December to February. The Julian year, as used in astronomy and other sciences, is a time unit defined as exactly 365.25 days of 86,400 SI seconds each (" ephemeris days "). This is the normal meaning of the unit "year" used in various scientific contexts. The Julian century of 36 525 ephemeris days and the Julian millennium of 365 250 ephemeris days are used in astronomical calculations. Fundamentally, expressing

4020-508: The start of the fasting month of Ramadan . A Muslim calendar year is based on the lunar cycle. The Jewish calendar is also essentially lunar, except that an intercalary lunar month is added once every two or three years, in order to keep the calendar synchronized with the solar cycle as well. Thus, a lunar year on the Jewish (Hebrew) calendar consists of either twelve or thirteen lunar months. The vague year, from annus vagus or wandering year,

4087-411: The tables a day is 86,400 SI seconds long. Some of the year lengths in this table are in average solar days , which are slowly getting longer (at a rate that cannot be exactly predicted in advance) and are now around 86,400.002 SI seconds . Ablaut An example of ablaut in English is the strong verb s i ng, s a ng, s u ng and its related noun s o ng , a paradigm inherited directly from

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4154-482: The verbs with "Narten" inflection , and nouns like *mḗh₁-n̥s "moon", genitive *méh₁-n̥s-os . Alternations of this type were rare, however, and the e ~ o ~ ∅ alternation was the most common by far. The long ō grade was rarer still and may not have actually been a part of the ablaut system at all. The zero grade of ablaut may appear difficult for speakers of English. In the case of *ph 2 trés, which may already have been pronounced something like [pɐtrés] , it

4221-458: The word stress; a macron (¯) marks long vowels and the syllable in bold is the one illustrating the different vowel gradations. In this unusually neat example, the following can be seen: As with most reconstructions, however, scholars differ about the details of this example. One way to think of this system is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European originally had only one vowel, short e , and over time, it changed according to phonetic context, so

4288-547: The world"), used for the Hebrew calendar and abbreviated AM; and the Japanese imperial eras . The Islamic Hijri year , (year of the Hijrah , Anno Hegirae abbreviated AH), is a lunar calendar of twelve lunar months and thus is shorter than a solar year. Financial and scientific calculations often use a 365-day calendar to simplify daily rates. A fiscal year or financial year

4355-454: The year into two main semesters, a first (typically August through December) and a second semester (January through May). Each of these main semesters may be split in half by mid-term exams, and each of the halves is referred to as a quarter (or term in some countries). There may also be a voluntary summer session or a short January session. Some other schools, including some in the United States, have four marking periods. Some schools in

4422-626: The year of the Lord". The Greek word for "year", ἔτος , is cognate with Latin vetus "old", from the PIE word *wetos- "year", also preserved in this meaning in Sanskrit vat-sa-ras "year" and vat-sa- "yearling (calf)", the latter also reflected in Latin vitulus "bull calf", English wether "ram" (Old English weðer , Gothic wiþrus "lamb"). In some languages, it is common to count years by referencing to one season, as in "summers", or "winters", or "harvests". Examples include Chinese 年 "year", originally 秂 , an ideographic compound of

4489-403: Was capable of forming a zero grade; some consonant structures inhibited it in particular cases, or completely. Thus, for example, although the preterite plural of a Germanic strong verb (see below) is derived from the zero grade, classes 4 and 5 have instead vowels representing the lengthened e-grade, as the stems of these verbs could not have sustained a zero grade in this position. Zero grade

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