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119-568: Briggs Automotive Company (BAC) Limited is a British car manufacturer that created Mono, a road-legal sports car with only one seat. BAC is based in the city of Liverpool , United Kingdom , Mono cars are exported to 47 countries. Briggs Automotive Company (BAC) was founded by brothers Neill (Director of Product Development) and Ian Briggs (design director) in 2009. The Briggs brothers consulted for car brands including Mercedes , Porsche , Bentley and Ford on design and engineering projects, until they decided to expand their creative potential with

238-404: A valley degeneracy of g v = 2 {\displaystyle g_{v}=2} . In contrast, for traditional semiconductors, the primary point of interest is generally Γ, where momentum is zero. If the in-plane direction is confined rather than infinite, its electronic structure changes. These confined structures are referred to as graphene nanoribbons . If the nanoribbon has

357-544: A "back gate" electrode to vary the charge density in the graphene over a wide range. This work resulted in the two winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010 for their groundbreaking experiments with graphene. Their publication and the surprisingly easy preparation method that they described, sparked a "graphene gold rush". Research expanded and split off into many different subfields, exploring different exceptional properties of

476-453: A "zig-zag" edge, the bandgap remains zero. If it has an "armchair" edge, the bandgap is non-zero. Graphene's honeycomb structure can be viewed as two interleaving triangular lattices. This perspective has been used to calculate the band structure for a single graphite layer using a tight-binding approximation. Electrons propagating through the graphene honeycomb lattice effectively lose their mass, producing quasi-particles described by

595-535: A 2D analogue of the Dirac equation rather than the Schrödinger equation for spin- ⁠ 1 / 2 ⁠ particles. The cleavage technique led directly to the first observation of the anomalous quantum Hall effect in graphene in 2005 by Geim's group and by Philip Kim and Yuanbo Zhang . This effect provided direct evidence of graphene's theoretically predicted Berry's phase of massless Dirac fermions and proof of

714-451: A centre of gravity as possible when designing the Mono. The car was constructed in carbon fibre with a tubular steel driver safety cell, complete with an FIA -compliant rollover protection system - similar in concept to a DTM race car. The rose-jointed, aero-profiled pushrod suspension featured adjustable dampers that can be altered based on driving on either the road or track. The Mono's design

833-671: A city which also suffered severe aerial bombing during the war. In the 1950s and 1960s, much of the immediate reconstruction that took place in the city centre proved to be deeply unpopular. The historic portions of the city that had survived German bombing suffered extensive destruction during urban renewal. It has been argued that the so-called "Shankland Plan" of the 1960s, named after the town planner Graeme Shankland , led to compromised town planning and vast road-building schemes that devastated and divided inner city neighbourhoods. Concrete brutalist architecture , compromised visions, botched projects and grand designs that were never realised became

952-513: A common adhesive tape in a process called micro-mechanical cleavage, colloquially referred to as the Scotch tape technique. The graphene flakes were then transferred onto a thin silicon dioxide layer on a silicon plate ("wafer"). The silica electrically isolated the graphene and weakly interacted with it, providing nearly charge-neutral graphene layers. The silicon beneath the SiO 2 could be used as

1071-439: A conventional tight-binding model, the dispersion relation (restricted to first-nearest-neighbor interactions only) that produces the energy of the electrons with wave vector k is: with the nearest-neighbor (π orbitals) hopping energy γ 0 ≈ 2.8 eV and the lattice constant a ≈ 2.46 Å . The conduction and valence bands correspond to the different signs. With one p z electron per atom in this model,

1190-566: A delocalized π-bond , which contributes to a valence band that extends over the whole sheet. This type of bonding is also seen in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . The valence band is touched by a conduction band , making graphene a semimetal with unusual electronic properties that are best described by theories for massless relativistic particles. Charge carriers in graphene show linear, rather than quadratic, dependence of energy on momentum, and field-effect transistors with graphene can be made that show bipolar conduction. Charge transport

1309-485: A factor of 10. The ribbons can function more like optical waveguides or quantum dots , allowing electrons to flow smoothly along the ribbon edges. In copper, resistance increases proportionally with length as electrons encounter impurities. Transport is dominated by two modes: one ballistic and temperature-independent, and the other thermally activated. Ballistic electrons resemble those in cylindrical carbon nanotubes. At room temperature, resistance increases abruptly at

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1428-528: A higher-spec, drive-by-wire motor allows for quicker throttle response. As a result, the bespoke Mountune engine now offers a specific output of 102 kW/L (137 bhp/L). Mono R is the first production car in the world fully incorporating the use of graphene -enhanced carbon fibre in every body panel. Using the revolutionary material enhances the structural properties of the fibre to make panels stronger and lighter, increasing toughness and improving thermal properties. The company's latest world first came as

1547-544: A joint European Capital of Culture for 2008. The celebrations included the erection of La Princesse , a large mechanical spider 20 metres high and weighing 37 tonnes, which represented the "eight legs" of Liverpool: honour, history, music, the Mersey, the ports, governance, sunshine and culture. La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities, and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel . Spearheaded by

1666-629: A manufacturer of niobium products. BAC founded the Mono Owners' Club in 2018. Liverpool Liverpool is a cathedral city , port city , and metropolitan borough in Merseyside , England. It had a population of 496,770 in 2022. The city is located on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary , adjacent to the Irish Sea , and is approximately 178 miles (286 km) northwest of London . Liverpool

1785-500: A metallic grid. Some of these images showed a "rippling" of the flat sheet, with an amplitude of about one nanometer. These ripples may be intrinsic to the material as a result of the instability of two-dimensional crystals, or may originate from the ubiquitous dirt seen in all TEM images of graphene. Photoresist residue, which must be removed to obtain atomic-resolution images, may be the " adsorbates " observed in TEM images, and may explain

1904-420: A method to produce graphene by repeatedly peeling off layers from a graphite flake adhered to a substrate, achieving a graphite thickness of 0.00001 inches (0.00025 millimetres ). The key to success was the ability to quickly and efficiently identify graphene flakes on the substrate using optical microscopy, which provided a small but visible contrast between the graphene and the substrate. Another U.S. patent

2023-628: A p z orbital that is oriented perpendicularly to the plane. These orbitals hybridize together to form two half-filled bands of free-moving electrons, π, and π∗, which are responsible for most of graphene's notable electronic properties. Recent quantitative estimates of aromatic stabilization and limiting size derived from the enthalpies of hydrogenation (ΔH hydro ) agree well with the literature reports. Graphene sheets stack to form graphite with an interplanar spacing of 0.335  nm (3.35  Å ). Graphene sheets in solid form usually show evidence in diffraction for graphite's (002) layering. This

2142-515: A pioneer of scientific toponymy in Wales, in "Place Names of North Wales", does not attempt to explain it beyond noting that " lleifiad " is used as a Welsh equivalent of "Liver". A derivative form of a learned borrowing into Welsh ( * llaf ) of Latin lāma (slough, bog, fen) to give " lleifiad " is possible, but unproven. In the Middle Ages , Liverpool existed firstly as farmland within

2261-638: A product from scratch. The result was the BAC Mono, a lightweight, single-seater, open-top, road-legal sports car. The first BAC Mono was produced in 2011 and made its inaugural public appearance at the Retro Classics show in Stuttgart , Germany. The first iteration of the BAC Mono was originally powered by a Ford Duratec 2.3-litre four-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol engine, heavily modified by Cosworth , to produce 280 bhp (209 kW) at 7,700 rpm. It

2380-407: A regenerated Albert Dock which proved to be a catalyst for further regeneration. In the mid-1990s, the city enjoyed growth rates higher than the national average. At the end of the 20th century, Liverpool was concentrating on regeneration, a process that continues today. Ongoing regeneration combined with the hosting of internationally significant events has helped to re-purpose Liverpool as one of

2499-432: A result of a successful APC-funded Research & Development project into the production-readiness of graphene. The technology is now in full series production. In 2022, the company announced a feasibility study into the use of hydrogen in powering the Mono, alongside clean tech company Viritech. The e-Mono study integrated a fuel cell powertrain into an existing Mono chassis, whilst minimising added weight. This resulted in

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2618-460: A single layer of graphite on top of silicon carbide. Others grew single layers of carbon atoms on other materials. This "epitaxial graphene" consists of a single-atom-thick hexagonal lattice of sp -bonded carbon atoms, as in free-standing graphene. However, there is significant charge transfer between the two materials and, in some cases, hybridization between the d-orbitals of the substrate atoms and π orbitals of graphene, which significantly alter

2737-520: A specific length—the ballistic mode at 16 micrometers and the thermally activated mode at 160 nanometers (1% of the former length). Graphene electrons can traverse micrometer distances without scattering, even at room temperature. Despite zero carrier density near the Dirac points, graphene exhibits a minimum conductivity on the order of 4 e 2 / h {\displaystyle 4e^{2}/h} . The origin of this minimum conductivity

2856-599: A study of extremely thin flakes of graphite. The study measured flakes as small as ~0.4 nm , which is around 3 atomic layers of amorphous carbon. This was the best possible resolution for TEMs in the 1960s. However, it is impossible to distinguish between suspended monolayer and multilayer graphene by their TEM contrasts, and the only known method is to analyze the relative intensities of various diffraction spots. The first reliable TEM observations of monolayers are likely given in references 24 and 26 of Geim and Novoselov's 2007 review. In 1975, van Bommel et al. epitaxially grew

2975-527: A vacuum. Coating the graphene surface with materials such as SiN, PMMA or h-BN has been proposed for protection. In January 2015, the first stable graphene device operation in the air over several weeks was reported for graphene whose surface was protected by aluminum oxide . In 2015, lithium -coated graphene exhibited superconductivity , a first for graphene. Electrical resistance in 40-nanometer-wide nanoribbons of epitaxial graphene changes in discrete steps. The ribbons' conductance exceeds predictions by

3094-550: Is 10  Ω⋅m , lower than the resistivity of silver , which is the lowest known at room temperature. However, on SiO 2 substrates, electron scattering by optical phonons of the substrate has a more significant effect than scattering by graphene's phonons, limiting mobility to 40 000  cm ⋅V ⋅s . Charge transport can be affected by the adsorption of contaminants such as water and oxygen molecules, leading to non-repetitive and large hysteresis I-V characteristics. Researchers need to conduct electrical measurements in

3213-455: Is ballistic over long distances; the material exhibits large quantum oscillations and large nonlinear diamagnetism . Three of the four outer- shell electrons of each atom in a graphene sheet occupy three sp hybrid orbitals – a combination of orbitals s, p x and p y — that are shared with the three nearest atoms, forming σ-bonds. The length of these bonds is about 0.142 nanometers. The remaining outer-shell electron occupies

3332-453: Is a large-scale graphene powder production facility in East Anglia . Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms tightly bound in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. It is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a plane of sp -bonded atoms with a molecular bond length of 0.142  nm (1.42  Å ). In a graphene sheet, each atom is connected to its three nearest carbon neighbors by σ-bonds , and

3451-473: Is also home to the UK's oldest surviving classical orchestra ( Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra ) and repertory theatre ( Liverpool Playhouse ). In 1864, Peter Ellis built the world's first iron-framed, curtain-walled office building, Oriel Chambers , which was a prototype of the skyscraper. The UK's first purpose-built department store was Compton House , completed in 1867 for the retailer J.R. Jeffrey. It

3570-615: Is also the home of the earliest black community in the UK , the earliest Chinese community in Europe , and the first mosque in England. The name comes from the Old English lifer , meaning thick or muddy water, and pōl , meaning a pool or creek, and is first recorded around 1190 as Liuerpul . According to the Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names , "The original reference

3689-418: Is beyond dispute, claims are sometimes made that the name Liverpool is of Welsh origin, but these are without foundation. The Welsh name for Liverpool is Lerpwl , from a former English local form Leerpool. This is a reduction of the form "Leverpool" with the loss of the intervocalic [v] (seen in other English names and words e.g. Daventry (Northamptonshire) > Danetry, never-do-well > ne’er-do-well). In

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3808-442: Is independent of temperature between 10 K and 100 K , showing minimal change even at room temperature (300 K), suggesting that the dominant scattering mechanism is defect scattering . Scattering by graphene's acoustic phonons intrinsically limits room temperature mobility in freestanding graphene to 200 000  cm ⋅V ⋅s at a carrier density of 10  cm . The corresponding resistivity of graphene sheets

3927-481: Is mounted longitudinally and mated to an electronically controlled, paddle-shift, six-speed sequential Hewland transmission with a limited-slip differential. The Mono weighs 540 kg (1,190 lb), resulting in a power-to-weight ratio of 518 bhp per tonne. It delivered performance figures of 0–62 mph (0–100 km/h) in 2.8 seconds and a top speed of 170 mph (274 km/h). BAC aimed for an equal weight distribution, 48/52 front/rear, and as low of

4046-565: Is named after the city. As early as 1851, the city was described as "the New York of Europe". During the late 19th and early 20th century, Liverpool was attracting immigrants from across Europe. This resulted in the construction of a diverse array of religious buildings in the city for the new ethnic and religious groups, many of which are still in use today. The Deutsche Kirche Liverpool , Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas , Gustav Adolf Church and Princes Road Synagogue were all established in

4165-464: Is often used as a filming location due to its distinctive architecture , and was the fifth most visited UK city by foreign tourists in 2022. It is the only UNESCO City of Music in England and has produced countless musicians , most notably the Beatles , who are widely regarded as the most influential band of all time ; musicians from the city have released more UK No. 1 hit singles than anywhere else in

4284-428: Is reversible on heating the graphene to remove the potassium. Due to graphene's two dimensions, charge fractionalization (where the apparent charge of individual pseudoparticles in low-dimensional systems is less than a single quantum) is thought to occur. It may therefore be a suitable material for constructing quantum computers using anyonic circuits. The quantum Hall effect is a quantum mechanical version of

4403-497: Is said to be inspired by a science fiction aesthetic and also the robot in Bjork 's music video for the song " All Is Full of Love ". In 2015, the Cosworth engine was replaced by a 2.5-litre Mountune Racing unit developing 305 bhp (227 kW) at 8,000 rpm. There were a number of further improvements under the skin to optimise performance, while wider chassis allowed for more room for

4522-410: Is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter , making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in the shape of a double cross: Bank Street (now Water Street ), Castle Street , Chapel Street , Dale Street , Juggler Street (now High Street ), Moor Street (now Tithebarn Street ) and Whiteacre Street (now Old Hall Street ). Liverpool Castle

4641-684: Is still unclear. However, rippling of the graphene sheet or ionized impurities in the SiO 2 substrate may lead to local puddles of carriers that allow conduction. Several theories suggest that the minimum conductivity should be 4 e 2 / ( π h ) {\displaystyle 4e^{2}/{(\pi }h)} ; however, most measurements are of the order of 4 e 2 / h {\displaystyle 4e^{2}/h} or greater and depend on impurity concentration. Near zero carrier density, graphene exhibits positive photoconductivity and negative photoconductivity at high carrier density, governed by

4760-637: Is the fifth largest city in the United Kingdom and the largest settlement in Merseyside. It is part of the Liverpool City Region , a combined authority with a population of over 1.5 million. Established as a borough in Lancashire in 1207, Liverpool became a significant town in the late 17th century, when the port at nearby Chester began to silt up. The Port of Liverpool became heavily involved in

4879-598: Is the vector of the Pauli matrices , ψ ( r ) {\displaystyle \psi (\mathbf {r} )} is the two-component wave function of the electrons, and E is their energy. The equation describing the electrons' linear dispersion relation is: where the wavevector q is measured from the Brillouin zone vertex K, q = | k − K | {\displaystyle q=\left|\mathbf {k} -\mathrm {K} \right|} , and

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4998-538: Is the world's oldest existing organisation devoted to the promotion of spaceflight . Its journal, the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society , is the longest-running astronautical publication in the world. Graphene Graphene is known for its exceptionally high tensile strength , electrical conductivity , transparency , and being the thinnest two-dimensional material in the world. Despite

5117-479: Is true of some single-walled nanostructures. However, unlayered graphene displaying only (hk0) rings have been observed in the core of presolar graphite onions. TEM studies show faceting at defects in flat graphene sheets and suggest a role for two-dimensional crystallization from a melt. The hexagonal lattice structure of isolated, single-layer graphene can be directly seen with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of sheets of graphene suspended between bars of

5236-514: The Atlantic slave trade , with the first slave ship departing from the town in 1699. The port also imported much of the cotton required by the neighbouring Lancashire textile mills , and became a major departure point for English and Irish emigrants to North America. Liverpool rose to global economic importance at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century and was home to

5355-554: The British Armed Forces , settled in Liverpool and other port cities. In June 1919, they were subject to attack by whites in racial riots; residents in the port included Swedish immigrants , and both groups had to compete with native people from Liverpool for jobs and housing. In this period, race riots also took place in other port cities. The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing being built across Liverpool during

5474-532: The English Civil War , including a brief siege in 1644. In 1699, the same year as its first recorded slave ship , Liverpool Merchant , set sail for Africa, Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament . But arguably, the legislation of 1695 that reformed the Liverpool council was of more significance to its subsequent development. Since Roman times , the nearby city of Chester on the River Dee had been

5593-661: The European Union selected it as the European Capital of Culture in 2008, which was reported to have generated over £800 million for the local economy within a year. The economy of Liverpool is diversified and encompasses tourism, culture , maritime , hospitality , healthcare , life sciences , advanced manufacturing, creative , and digital sectors. The city is home to the UK's second highest number of art galleries , national museums , listed buildings , and parks and open spaces , with only London having more. It

5712-541: The Eurovision Song Contest 2023 . Liverpool has been a centre of invention and innovation. Railways, transatlantic steamships , municipal trams, and electric trains were all pioneered in Liverpool as modes of mass transit. In 1829 and 1836, the first railway tunnels in the world were constructed under Liverpool ( Wapping Tunnel ). From 1950 to 1951, the world's first scheduled passenger helicopter service ran between Liverpool and Cardiff . The first School for

5831-573: The Great War was marked by social unrest, as society grappled with the massive war losses of young men, as well as trying to re-integrate veterans into civilian life and the economy. Unemployment and poor living standards greeted many ex-servicemen. Union organising and strikes took place in numerous locations, including a police strike in Liverpool among the City Police . Numerous colonial soldiers and sailors from Africa and India, who had served with

5950-683: The Hall effect , which is the production of transverse (perpendicular to the main current) conductivity in the presence of a magnetic field . The quantization of the Hall effect σ x y {\displaystyle \sigma _{xy}} at integer multiples (the " Landau level ") of the basic quantity e / h (where e is the elementary electric charge and h is the Planck constant ). It can usually be observed only in very clean silicon or gallium arsenide solids at temperatures around 3  K and very high magnetic fields. Graphene shows

6069-692: The Macgregor Laird expedition to the Niger River, at that time in progress. This is to a painting by Samuel Austin , Liverpool, from the Mersey . Britain was a major market for cotton imported from the Deep South of the United States, which fed the textile industry in the country. Given the crucial place cotton held in the city's economy, during the American Civil War Liverpool was, in

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6188-514: The Paradise Project , a £920 million development based on Paradise Street . This produced one of the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction. Renamed as ' Liverpool One ,' the centre opened in May 2008. In 2007, events and celebrations took place in honour of the 800th anniversary of the founding of the borough of Liverpool. Liverpool was designated as

6307-554: The Queensway Tunnel linking Liverpool and Birkenhead . Described as "the eighth wonder of the world" at the time of its construction, it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world for 24 years. In 1897, the Lumière brothers filmed Liverpool, including what is believed to be the world's first tracking shot , taken from the Liverpool Overhead Railway , the world's first elevated electrified railway. The Overhead Railway

6426-561: The River Dee continued to silt up, Liverpool began to grow with increasing rapidity. The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715. Substantial profits from the slave trade and tobacco helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow, although several prominent local men, including William Rathbone , William Roscoe and Edward Rushton , were at the forefront of the local abolitionist movement . The 19th century saw Liverpool rise to global economic importance. Pioneering, world first , technology and civic facilities launched in

6545-469: The West Derby Hundred before growing in to a small town of farmers, fishermen and tradesmen and tactical army base for King John of England . The town was planned with its own castle , although due to outbreaks of disease and its subordinance to the nearby Roman port of Chester , the town's growth and prosperity stagnated until the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Substantial growth took place in

6664-484: The first intercity railway , the first non-combustible warehouse system (the Royal Albert Dock ), and a pioneering elevated electrical railway ; it was granted city status in 1880 and was moved from Lancashire to the newly created county of Merseyside in 1974 . Like many other British cities, it entered a period of decline in the mid-20th century; however, it has experienced significant and ongoing regeneration since

6783-482: The sea-holly was Liverpool's final choice. The initiative was designed to highlight growing threats to the UK's flower species and also ask the public about which flowers best represented their county. Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups, such as the Beatles , as well as the city's world-class art galleries, museums and landmarks, tourism and culture have become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy. In 2004, property developer Grosvenor started

6902-484: The " Merseybeat " sound, which became synonymous with the Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands. Influenced by American rhythm and blues and rock music, they also in turn strongly affected American music. The Beatles became internationally known in the early 1960s and performed around the world together ; they were, and continue to be, the most commercially successful and musically influential band in popular history. Their co-founder, singer, and composer John Lennon

7021-533: The 1800s to serve Liverpool's growing German, Greek, Nordic and Jewish communities, respectively. One of Liverpool's oldest surviving churches, St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church , served the Polish community in its final years as a place of worship. The 20th century saw Liverpool's established rank as a global economic powerhouse challenged. Its strategic location as an international seaport made it particularly vulnerable in two World wars . Economic depressions (both in

7140-557: The 1840s when Irish migrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine . While many Irish settled during this time in the city, a large percentage also emigrated to the United States or moved to the industrial centres of Lancashire , Yorkshire and the Midlands . In her poetical illustration "Liverpool" (1832), which celebrates the city's worldwide commerce, Letitia Elizabeth Landon refers specifically to

7259-472: The 1920s and 1930s. In the 1920s and 1930s, as much as 15% of the city's population (around 140,000 people) was relocated from the inner-city to new purpose built, lower density suburban housing estates, based on the belief that this would improve their standard of living, though the overall benefits have been contested. Numerous private homes were also built during this era. During the Great Depression of

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7378-411: The 19th century, some Welsh publications used the name " Lle'r Pwll " ("(the) place (of) the pool"), a reinterpretation of Lerpwl , probably in the belief that " Lle'r Pwll " was the original form. Another name, which is widely known even today, is Llynlleifiad , again a 19th-century coining. " Llyn " is pool, but " lleifiad " has no obvious meaning. G. Melville Richards (1910–1973),

7497-814: The Blind , Mechanics' Institute , High School for Girls, council house, and Juvenile Court were all founded in Liverpool. Charities such as the RSPCA , NSPCC , Age Concern , Relate , and Citizen's Advice Bureau all evolved from work in the city. The first lifeboat station, public bath and wash-house, sanitary act, medical officer for health ( William Henry Duncan ), district nurse, slum clearance , purpose-built ambulance, X-ray medical diagnosis, school of tropical medicine ( Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine ), motorised municipal fire-engine, free school meal, cancer research centre, and zoonosis research centre all originated in Liverpool. The first British Nobel Prize

7616-475: The Dirac fermion nature of electrons. These effects were previously observed in bulk graphite by Yakov Kopelevich, Igor A. Luk'yanchuk, and others, in 2003–2004. When atoms are placed onto the graphene hexagonal lattice, the overlap between the p z (π) orbitals and the s or the p x and p y orbitals is zero by symmetry. Therefore, p z electrons forming the π bands in graphene can be treated independently. Within this π-band approximation, using

7735-519: The Mersey, and the CSS Shenandoah surrendered there (being the final surrender at the end of the war). The city was also the center of Confederate purchasing war materiel, including arms and ammunition, uniforms, and naval supplies to be smuggled by British blockade runners to the South . For periods during the 19th century, the wealth of Liverpool exceeded that of London, and Liverpool's Custom House

7854-491: The Mono to deliver 256 kW (343 bhp). Starting with the Ford Duratec engine , BAC and Mountune increased the cylinder bore size and reduced the new billet crankshaft stroke to optimize power and torque delivery and increased the redline from 7,800 rpm to 8,800 rpm. The new Formula-inspired ram-air inlet system provides pressurized air into an all-new throttle body and cylinder head system to further increase power, plus

7973-718: The National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the Olympic Charter . A concept devised by retail entrepreneur David Lewis , the first Christmas grotto opened in Lewis's department store in Liverpool in 1879. Sir Alfred Lewis Jones , a shipowner, introduced bananas to the UK via Liverpool's docks in 1884. The Mersey Railway , opened in 1886, incorporated

8092-529: The Queen recognised Liverpool as "one of the most distinctive and energetic parts of the United Kingdom", and paid tribute to the city's "major orchestras, world-class museums and galleries". She also acknowledged Liverpool's bid to become the European Capital of Culture . To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife organised a competition to choose county flowers ;

8211-515: The UK's first Underwriters' Association and the first Institute of Accountants . The Western world's first financial derivatives (cotton futures) were traded on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange in the late 1700s. In the arts, Liverpool was home to the first lending library ( The Lyceum ), athenaeum society ( Liverpool Athenaeum ), arts centre ( Bluecoat Chambers ), and public art conservation centre ( National Conservation Centre ). It

8330-414: The United Kingdom and across the world), changing housing patterns and containerisation in the maritime industry contributed to a downtrend in the city's productivity and prosperity. Despite this, the city's influence on global popular culture excelled and by the end of the century, the continuing process of urban renewal paved the way for the redefined modern city of the 21st century. The period after

8449-402: The addition of graphene ensured panels required two sheets of carbon fibre, rather than three. A panel set that weighed 41 kg before the use of graphene weighed 32 kg after use of graphene. In 2020, BAC was awarded UK Government funding to undertake its latest nano element R&D project, exploring the use of niobium in the structure of BAC Mono. The project is sponsored by CBMM ,

8568-411: The area. More immigrants arrived after World War II, mostly settling in older inner-city areas such as Toxteth , where housing was less expensive. The black population of Liverpool was recorded at 1.90% in 2011. In the 2021 Census , 5.2% described themselves as black African, Caribbean, mixed white and black African, mixed white and Caribbean or 'other black'. In the 1960s, Liverpool was the centre of

8687-511: The central government in London. Liverpool in the 1980s has been labelled as Britain's 'shock city'. Once the second city of the British Empire which rivalled the capital city in global significance, Liverpool had collapsed in to its 'nadir' at the depths of post-colonial , post-industrial Britain. In the late 20th century, Liverpool's economy began to recover. The late 1980s saw the opening of

8806-523: The city and form an important part of the economy. In June 2014, Prime Minister David Cameron launched the International Festival for Business in Liverpool, the world's largest business event in 2014, and the largest in the UK since the Festival of Britain in 1951. The Labour Party has chosen Liverpool numerous times since the mid 2010s for their annual Labour Party Conference . Liverpool hosted

8925-545: The city to serve the accelerating population which was fuelled by an influx of ethnic and religious communities from all around the world. By the start of the 19th century, a large volume of trade was passing through Liverpool, and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth. In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . The population continued to rise rapidly, especially during

9044-473: The city's docks became largely obsolete, and dock workers were made unemployed. By the early 1980s, unemployment rates in Liverpool were among the highest in the UK, standing at 17% by January 1982 although, this was about half the level of unemployment that had affected the city during the Great Depression some 50 years previously. During this period, Liverpool became a hub of fierce left-wing opposition to

9163-484: The city. By the 2020s, urban regeneration throughout the city continues. Liverpool Waters , a mixed-use development in the city's disused northern docklands, has been identified as one of the largest megaprojects in the UK's history. Everton's new stadium at Bramley-Moore Dock was regarded as the largest single-site private sector development in the United Kingdom at the time of construction. Major events, business and political conferences regularly take place in

9282-445: The description of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 2000 by S. Wang and others. Efforts to make thin films of graphite by mechanical exfoliation started in 1990. Initial attempts employed exfoliation techniques similar to the drawing method. Multilayer samples down to 10 nm in thickness were obtained. In 2002, Robert B. Rutherford and Richard L. Dudman filed for a patent in the US on

9401-478: The driver in the cockpit. The 2015 model year BAC Mono weighed 580 kg, resulting in a power-to-weight ratio of 525 bhp per tonne. On 4 July 2019, BAC launched the limited-edition BAC Mono R at the Goodwood Festival of Speed. Mono R is a higher-performance, lighter and more advanced new generation of the original BAC Mono. The Mono R is 38 bhp (28 kW) more powerful and 25 kg lighter than

9520-455: The e-Mono completing a simulated lap of Silverstone Circuit 2 seconds faster than the combustion-engined Mono R. BAC is known for its research and development into lightweight automotive technology, especially for the use of graphene in the car body. Combining graphene within carbon fibre enhances the structural properties of carbon to result in fewer sheets being needed to meet functional performance targets. With BAC Mono and Mono R panels,

9639-562: The early 1930s, unemployment peaked at around 30% in the city. Liverpool was the site of Britain's first provincial airport , operating from 1930. During the Second World War , the critical strategic importance of Liverpool was recognised by both Hitler and Churchill . The city was heavily bombed by the Germans, suffering a blitz second only to London's. The pivotal Battle of the Atlantic

9758-488: The electronic structure compared to that of free-standing graphene. Boehm et al. coined the term "graphene" for the hypothetical single-layer structure in 1986. The term was used again in 1987 to describe single sheets of graphite as a constituent of graphite intercalation compounds , which can be seen as crystalline salts of the intercalant and graphene. It was also used in the descriptions of carbon nanotubes by R. Saito and Mildred and Gene Dresselhaus in 1992, and in

9877-482: The electrons and holes are called Dirac fermions . This pseudo-relativistic description is restricted to the chiral limit , i.e., to vanishing rest mass M 0 , leading to interesting additional features: Here v F ~ 10  m/s (.003 c) is the Fermi velocity in graphene, which replaces the velocity of light in the Dirac theory; σ → {\displaystyle {\vec {\sigma }}}

9996-503: The formation of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority in a form of devolution . With a devolved budget granted by central government , the authority now oversees and invests in foremost strategic affairs throughout the Liverpool City Region , including major regeneration projects. The authority, along with Liverpool City Council itself, has embarked on long-term plans to grow the population and economy of

10115-524: The interplay between photoinduced changes of both the Drude weight and the carrier scattering rate. Graphene doped with various gaseous species (both acceptors and donors) can be returned to an undoped state by gentle heating in a vacuum. Even for dopant concentrations in excess of 10 cm , carrier mobility exhibits no observable change. Graphene doped with potassium in ultra-high vacuum at low temperature can reduce mobility 20-fold. The mobility reduction

10234-413: The manufacturing process for mass production have had limited success due to cost-effectiveness and quality control concerns. The global graphene market was $ 9 million in 2012, with most of the demand from research and development in semiconductors , electronics, electric batteries , and composites . The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) advises using the term "graphite" for

10353-587: The material—quantum mechanical, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, magnetic, etc. Since the early 2000s, several companies and research laboratories have been working to develop commercial applications of graphene. In 2014, a National Graphene Institute was established with that purpose at the University of Manchester, with a £60 million initial funding. In North East England two commercial manufacturers, Applied Graphene Materials and Thomas Swan Limited have begun manufacturing. Cambridge Nanosystems

10472-558: The mid-late 18th century when the town became the most heavily involved European port in the Atlantic slave trade . King John 's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool (then spelt as Liuerpul ). There is no evidence that the place had previously been a centre of any trade. The creation of the borough was probably due to King John deciding it would be a convenient place to embark men and supplies for his Irish campaigns , in particular John's Irish campaign of 1209 . The original street plan of Liverpool

10591-461: The most stable fullerene (as within graphite) only for molecules larger than 24,000 atoms. Graphene is a zero-gap semiconductor because its conduction and valence bands meet at the Dirac points . The Dirac points are six locations in momentum space on the edge of the Brillouin zone , divided into two non-equivalent sets of three points. These sets are labeled K and K'. These sets give graphene

10710-421: The most visited, tourist orientated, cities in the United Kingdom. City leaders are focussing on long-term strategies to grow the city's population and economy, while national government explores the continuous potential for devolution in the city. In 2002, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited Liverpool to mark the Golden Jubilee . On speaking to an audience at Liverpool Town Hall ,

10829-606: The multi-billion- pound Liverpool ONE development, regeneration continued throughout the 2010s. Some of the most significant redevelopment projects included new buildings in the Commercial District , King's Dock , Mann Island , around Lime Street , the Baltic Triangle , RopeWalks , and Edge Lane . Changes to Liverpool's governance took place in 2014. The local authority of Liverpool City Council decided to pool its power and resources with surrounding boroughs through

10948-408: The nearly transparent nature of a single graphene sheet, graphite (formed from stacked layers of graphene) appears black because it absorbs all visible light wavelengths. On a microscopic scale, graphene is the strongest material ever measured. The existence of graphene was first theorized in 1947 by Philip R. Wallace during his research on graphite's electronic properties. In 2004, the material

11067-453: The nose reduce the frontal area and contributes to a more minimalist appearance. The Mono R's sleeker and tighter appearance has been achieved by reductions in visible mass across the full body; there has also been a 20 mm reduction in overall height and a 25 mm increase in length over the standard Mono. The Mono R's 2.5-litre, four-cylinder engine, co-developed with long-standing engine partner Mountune, has power increased by 38 bhp over

11186-427: The observed rippling. The hexagonal structure is also seen in scanning tunneling microscope (STM) images of graphene supported on silicon dioxide substrates The rippling seen in these images is caused by the conformation of graphene to the substrates' lattice and is not intrinsic. Ab initio calculations show that a graphene sheet is thermodynamically unstable if its size is less than about 20 nm and becomes

11305-613: The occurrence in a magnetic field of an electronic Landau level precisely at the Dirac point . This level is responsible for the anomalous integer quantum Hall effect . Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of thin graphite samples consisting of a few graphene layers were published by G. Ruess and F. Vogt in 1948. Eventually, single layers were also observed directly. Single layers of graphite were also observed by transmission electron microscopy within bulk materials, particularly inside soot obtained by chemical exfoliation . From 1961 to 1962, Hanns-Peter Boehm published

11424-470: The quantum Hall effect: the conductivity quantization is unusual in that the sequence of steps is shifted by 1/2 with respect to the standard sequence and with an additional factor of 4. Graphene's Hall conductivity is σ x y = ± 4 ⋅ ( N + 1 / 2 ) e 2 / h {\displaystyle \sigma _{xy}=\pm {4\cdot \left(N+1/2\right)e^{2}}/h} , where N

11543-543: The region's principal port on the Irish Sea . However, as the Dee began to silt up , maritime trade from Chester became increasingly difficult and shifted towards Liverpool on the neighbouring River Mersey . The first of the Liverpool docks was constructed in 1715, and the system of docks gradually grew into a large interconnected system. As trade from the West Indies , including sugar, surpassed that of Ireland and Europe, and as

11662-436: The rest are equivalent by symmetry. Near the K -points, the energy depends linearly on the wave vector, similar to a relativistic particle. Since an elementary cell of the lattice has a basis of two atoms, the wave function has an effective 2-spinor structure . Consequently, at low energies even neglecting the true spin, electrons can be described by an equation formally equivalent to the massless Dirac equation . Hence,

11781-443: The standard Mono, at 256 kW (343 bhp) and 555 kg which equates to a power-to-weight ratio of 461 W/kg (618 bhp/t). Although still resembling the Mono, the R has had all surfaces designed from scratch with 44 bespoke carbon parts restyled to give the car a more aggressive, organic, and futuristic stance. The new look of Mono R is defined by the shark nose front. The main beam LED headlights centrally mounted on

11900-411: The structure of graphite. The lack of large single crystal graphite specimens contributed to the independent development of X-ray powder diffraction by Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer in 1915, and Albert Hull in 1916. However, neither of their proposed structures was correct. In 1918, Volkmar Kohlschütter and P. Haenni described the properties of graphite oxide paper . The structure of graphite

12019-440: The subject of condemnation. Historian Raphael Samuel labelled Graeme Shankland "the butcher of Liverpool". A significant West Indian black community has existed in the city since the first two decades of the 20th century. Like most British cities and industrialised towns, Liverpool became home to a significant number of Commonwealth immigrants, beginning after World War I with colonial soldiers and sailors who had served in

12138-622: The three-dimensional material and reserving "graphene" for discussions about the properties or reactions of single-atom layers. A narrower definition, of "isolated or free-standing graphene", requires that the layer be sufficiently isolated from its environment, but would include layers suspended or transferred to silicon dioxide or silicon carbide . In 1859, Benjamin Brodie noted the highly lamellar structure of thermally reduced graphite oxide . Pioneers in X-ray crystallography attempted to determine

12257-439: The valence band is fully occupied, while the conduction band is vacant. The two bands touch at the zone corners (the K point in the Brillouin zone), where there is a zero density of states but no band gap. Thus, graphene exhibits a semi-metallic (or zero-gap semiconductor) character, although this is not true for a graphene sheet rolled into a carbon nanotube due to its curvature. Two of the six Dirac points are independent, while

12376-672: The words of historian Sven Beckert , "the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself." Liverpool merchants helped to bring out cotton from ports blockaded by the Union Navy , built ships of war for the Confederacy , and supplied the South with military equipment and credit. During the war, the Confederate Navy ship, the CSS Alabama , was built at Birkenhead on

12495-419: The world's first tunnel under a tidal estuary and the world's first deep-level underground stations ( Liverpool James Street railway station ). In 1889, borough engineer John Alexander Brodie invented the football goal net. He was also a pioneer in the use of pre-fabricated housing and oversaw the construction of the UK's first ring road ( A5058 ) and intercity highway ( East Lancashire Road ), as well as

12614-444: The world. It has also produced many academics , actors , artists , comedians , filmmakers , poets , scientists , sportspeople , and writers . In sports, it is known as the home of Premier League football teams Everton FC and Liverpool FC . The world's oldest still-operating mainline train station, Liverpool Lime Street , is in the city centre; transport is also served by the underground Merseyrail network. The city's port

12733-550: The zero of energy is set to coincide with the Dirac point. The equation uses a pseudospin matrix formula that describes two sublattices of the honeycomb lattice. Electron waves in graphene propagate within a single-atom layer, making them sensitive to the proximity of other materials such as high-κ dielectrics , superconductors , and ferromagnetic . Graphene exhibits high electron mobility at room temperature, with values reported in excess of 15 000  cm ⋅V ⋅s . Hole and electron mobilities are nearly identical. The mobility

12852-480: Was awarded in 1902 to Ronald Ross , professor at the School of Tropical Medicine, the first school of its kind in the world. Orthopaedic surgery was pioneered in Liverpool by Hugh Owen Thomas , and modern medical anaesthetics by Thomas Cecil Gray . The world's first integrated sewer system was constructed in Liverpool by James Newlands , appointed in 1847 as the UK's first borough engineer. Liverpool also founded

12971-404: Was built before 1235, it survived until it was demolished in the 1720s. By the middle of the 16th century, the population was still around 600, although this was likely to have fallen from an earlier peak of 1000 people due to slow trade and the effects of the plague . In the 17th century, there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for control of the town were waged during

13090-528: Was filed in the same year by Bor Z. Jang and Wen C. Huang for a method to produce graphene-based on exfoliation followed by attrition. In 2014, inventor Larry Fullerton patented a process for producing single-layer graphene sheets. Graphene was properly isolated and characterized in 2004 by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov at the University of Manchester . They pulled graphene layers from graphite with

13209-507: Was isolated and characterized by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov at the University of Manchester using a piece of graphite and adhesive tape . In 2010, Geim and Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their "groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene". While small amounts of graphene are easy to produce using the method by which it was originally isolated, attempts to scale and automate

13328-616: Was killed in New York City in 1980. Liverpool Airport was renamed after him in 2002, the first British airport to be named in honour of an individual. Previously part of Lancashire, and a county borough from 1889, Liverpool became a metropolitan borough within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside , in 1974. From the mid-1970s onwards, Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries declined due to restructuring of shipping and heavy industry, causing massive losses of jobs. The advent of containerisation meant that

13447-506: Was planned, fought and won from Liverpool. The Luftwaffe made 80  air raids on Merseyside , killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area. Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock , the largest dock project in Britain. Since 1952, Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne , Germany,

13566-505: Was successfully determined from single-crystal X-ray diffraction by J. D. Bernal in 1924, although subsequent research has made small modifications to the unit cell parameters. The theory of graphene was first explored by P. R. Wallace in 1947 as a starting point for understanding the electronic properties of 3D graphite. The emergent massless Dirac equation was separately pointed out in 1984 by Gordon Walter Semenoff , and by David P. Vincenzo and Eugene J. Mele. Semenoff emphasized

13685-454: Was the first railway in the world to use electric multiple units , employ automatic signalling, and install an escalator. Liverpool inventor Frank Hornby was a visionary in toy development and manufacture, producing three of the most popular lines of toys in the 20th century: Meccano , Hornby Model Railways (both in 1901), and Dinky Toys in 1934. The British Interplanetary Society , founded in Liverpool in 1933 by Phillip Ellaby Cleator,

13804-485: Was the fourth largest in the UK in 2023, with numerous shipping and freight lines having headquarters and offices there. Residents of Liverpool are often called "Scousers" in reference to scouse , a local stew made popular by sailors in the city, while "Scouse" is also the most common name given to the distinctive local accent . The city's cultural and ethnic diversity has resulted from its history of attracting immigrants, especially from Ireland, Scandinavia, and Wales; it

13923-523: Was the largest store in the world at the time. Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Pierre Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865, Hulley co-founded

14042-575: Was the single largest contributor to the British Exchequer . Liverpool was the only British city ever to have its own Whitehall office. During this century, at least 40% of the world's entire trade passed through Liverpool. In the early 19th century, Liverpool played a major role in the Antarctic sealing industry, in recognition of which Liverpool Beach in the South Shetland Islands

14161-512: Was to a pool or tidal creek now filled up into which two streams drained". The place appearing as Leyrpole , in a legal record of 1418, may also refer to Liverpool. Other origins of the name have been suggested, including "elverpool", a reference to the large number of eels in the Mersey . The adjective "Liverpudlian" was first recorded in 1833. Although the Old English origin of the name Liverpool

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