96-587: Lists of holidays by various categorizations. In the order of the Wheel of the Year : The following table is a chart based on a Messianic Jewish perspective of the 9 biblical holidays (including the Sabbath), along with their times and days of occurrence, references in the Bible , and how they point to Yeshua ( Jesus ). All the holidays shown below are major with the exceptions of
192-418: A vigil , Saint John's Eve , was added to the feast day. Christian priests held three Masses in churches for the celebration. Many neopagans celebrate midsummer. As forms of Neopaganism have widely different origins, observances can vary considerably despite the shared name. Some celebrate in a manner as close as possible to how they believe ancient pagans observed the summer solstice, while others observe
288-492: A bonfire; another is of clean wood and no bones, and is called a wakefire, for men sitteth and wake by it; the third is made of bones and wood, and is called St John's Fire. The 13th-century monk of Winchcomb , Gloucestershire, who compiled a book of sermons for Christian feast days, recorded how St John's Eve was celebrated in his time: Let us speak of the revels which are accustomed to be made on St. John's Eve, of which there are three kinds. On St. John's Eve in certain regions
384-523: A cause or a historical event not officially recognized, while a few others are both celebrated and intended as humorous distractions. Wheel of the Year The Wheel of the Year is an annual cycle of seasonal festivals , observed by a range of modern pagans , marking the year 's chief solar events ( solstices and equinoxes ) and the midpoints between them. Modern pagan observances are based to varying degrees on folk traditions , regardless of
480-593: A community. Heathens may add to the demarcations of the Wheel of the Year with various Days of Remembrance celebrating heroes of the Edda and the Sagas and figures of Germanic history such as Leif Ericson , who explored parts of North America . Heathen organisations using the Wheel of the Year framework for their festival calendar include the Swedish group Samfundet Forn Sed Sverige ,
576-412: A holiday on the evening before the actual day, it takes place on the evening of 23 June. It is the day where the medieval wise men and women (the doctors of that time) would gather special herbs that they needed for the rest of the year to cure people. Bonfires on the beach, speeches, picnics and songs are traditional, although they are built in many other places where beaches may not be close by (i.e. on
672-461: A list of the (then-obsolete) Anglo-Saxon names for the months of the early Germanic calendar . Ærra Liða ( first or preceding Liða ) roughly corresponds to June in the Gregorian calendar , and Æfterra Liða ( following Liða ) to July. Bede writes that "Litha means gentle or navigable , because in both these months the calm breezes are gentle and they were wont to sail upon
768-626: A narrative of the Holly King and Oak King as rulers of the waning year and the waxing year respectively. These two figures battle endlessly with the turning of the seasons. At the summer solstice, the Holly King defeats the Oak King and commences his reign. After the Autumn equinox the Oak King slowly begins to regain his power as the sun begins to wane. Come the winter solstice the Oak King in turn vanquishes
864-503: Is Alban Elfed . It is a neopagan festival of thanksgiving for the fruits of the earth and a recognition of the need to share them to secure the blessings of the Goddess and the Gods during the coming winter months. The name Mabon was coined by Aidan Kelly around 1970 as a reference to Mabon ap Modron , a character from Welsh mythology. Samhain ( / ˈ s ɑː w ɪ n / ), or Sauin ,
960-564: Is a public holiday . In Denmark and Norway, it may also be referred to as St. Hans Day. In the 4th century AD, the undivided Christian Church made 24 June the feast day of Saint John the Baptist ; it marks his birth, which the Gospel of Luke says was six months before Jesus . Christians marked the birth of Jesus ( Christmas ) on 25 December, the Roman date of the winter solstice, so the feast of St John
1056-521: Is a name for the spring equinox in some modern pagan traditions. The term is derived from a reconstruction produced by linguist Jacob Grimm of an Old High German form of the Old English Ēostre , an Anglo-Saxon goddess for whom, according to Bede , feasts were held in her eponymous month , which he equated to April in the Julian calendar . Known as Alban Eilir in strands of neo-druidry, this holiday
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#17328452852771152-478: Is also a popular day for infant baptisms and in the 19th century, "baptisms of children who had died 'pagans' were acted out". In Sweden, young people visited holy springs as "a reminder of how John the Baptist baptised Christ in the River Jordan." The early Christian Church designated 24 June as the feast day of the early Christian martyr St John the Baptist , and the observance of St John's Day begins
1248-452: Is burned and ashes are thrown on the ground, as a "burning for regeneration" ritual. Tribal or community fires ( zjarre ) are traditionally made with straw, with people jumping across them. In some regions plumes of burning chaff were carried in the air, running through the fields and hills. The ashes of the straw that burned in the ritual fires of this event are traditionally thrown to the field for good luck. During this feast sheep shearing
1344-466: Is celebrated by neopagans who emphasize what they believe to be the reconstruction of Anglo-Saxon Germanic paganism . Midsummer is traditionally celebrated throughout Europe, including in Albania, Austria, Belarus, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Flanders, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, and parts of
1440-459: Is no evidence that the pre-Christian Germanic peoples celebrated the summer solstice. The historian Ronald Hutton says that the "lighting of festive fires upon Saint John's Eve is first recorded as a popular custom by Jean Belethus , a theologian at the University of Paris, in the early twelfth century", but is undoubtedly much older. In England, the earliest reference to this custom occurs in
1536-494: Is not lowered in the night between these two days. On the Faroe Islands , St. John's Eve ( jóansøka ) is generally not celebrated. However, on the southernmost island of Suðuroy it is observed by lighting a bonfire. Only one bonfire is lit on the island as one of the two biggest towns hosts the celebration alternately every other year. The pre-Christian name for the summer solstice was Ukon juhla ("Ukko's celebration") after
1632-547: Is part of the reconstructed Germanic calendar used by some Germanic Neopagans and takes its name from Bede 's De temporum ratione that provides Anglo-Saxon names for the two months roughly corresponding to June and July as līða , distinguished in Bosworth and Toller's dictionary as sē ǽrra líða ("the earlier Litha") and sē æftera līða ("the later Litha") with an intercalary third month of līða on leap years or Triliði ("three-Litha" years). In modern times, Litha
1728-789: Is sung at most bonfires on this evening. Jaanipäev ("Jaan's Day" or "Midsummer Day" in English or "St. John's Day" for Christians) was celebrated long before the arrival of Christianity in Estonia , although the day was given its modern name by Christians. The day is still known by its many names as: leedopäev , suvine pööripäiv , suvepööripäev , püäripääv , päevakäänak , päiväkäänäk , päiväkäändjäne , päevapesa , pesapäev and suured päevad . The arrival of Christianity, however, did not end pagan beliefs and fertility rituals surrounding this holiday. In 1578, Balthasar Russow wrote in his Livonian Chronicle about Estonians who placed more importance on
1824-448: Is that they are "an emblem of St. John the Baptist, who was 'a burning and shining light,' and the preparer of the way of Christ." The fires were also believed to repel witches and evil spirits . On St John's Day in 1333, Petrarch watched women at Cologne rinsing their hands and arms in the Rhine "so that the threatening calamities of the coming year might be washed away by bathing in
1920-466: Is the name of a traditional Gaelic festival held around 1 November. Its Welsh name is Calan Gaeaf . For Wiccans, it is a time to celebrate the lives of those who have passed on, and it often involves paying respect to ancestors, family members, elders of the faith, friends, pets, and other loved ones who have died. Aligned with the contemporary observance of Halloween and Day of the Dead , in some traditions
2016-565: Is the second of three spring celebrations (the midpoint between Imbolc and Beltane), during which light and darkness are again in balance, with light on the rise. It is a time of new beginnings and of life emerging further from the grips of winter. Beltane comes from the Gaelic name for May Day ( Irish : Bealtaine and Scottish Gaelic : Bealtainn ), with the Welsh names being Calan Mai , Calan Haf , or Cyntefin . Traditionally, it marked
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#17328452852772112-524: Is traditionally performed by shepherds. In Austria, the Midsummer solstice is celebrated each year with a procession of ships down the Danube River as it flows through the wine-growing Wachau Valley north of Vienna. Up to 30 ships sail down the river in line as fireworks erupt from the banks and hill tops while bonfires blaze and the vineyards are lit up. Lighted castle ruins also erupt with fireworks during
2208-616: The Celtic names used by Gardner and the Germanic -derived names introduced by Kelly, regardless whether local celebrations are based on those cultures. In many traditions of modern pagan cosmology , all things are considered to be cyclical, with time as a perpetual cycle of growth and retreat tied to the Sun 's annual death and rebirth . This cycle is also viewed as a micro- and macrocosm of other life cycles in an immeasurable series of cycles composing
2304-893: The European witch trials , including a 1661 trial record from Forfar , Scotland, where the accused witch (Issobell Smyth) was alleged to attend witches meetings " every quarter " at Candlemas (2 February), Roodmas (3 May), Lammas (1 August), and Hallowmas (1 November). The White Goddess (1948) by Robert Graves suggested that, despite Christianisation , the importance of agricultural and social cycles had preserved eight holidays of "the ancient British festal system", consisting of Candlemas (2 February), Lady Day (25 March), May Day (1 May), Midsummer Day (24 June), Lammas (1 August), Michaelmas (29 September), Halloween (31 October), and Christmas (25 December). Two neopagan streams in Britain popularised these seasonal festival calendars in
2400-570: The Portuguese during the colonial period (1500–1822), are celebrated throughout the country during the month of June. The festival is mainly celebrated on the eves of the Catholic solemnities of Saint Anthony , Saint John the Baptist , and Saint Peter . As the Northeast of Brazil is largely arid or semi-arid , these festivals not only coincide with the end of the rainy seasons in most states of
2496-498: The ancient Roman world , the traditional date of the summer solstice was 24 June, and Marcus Terentius Varro wrote in the 1st century BC that Romans saw this as the middle of summer. In the city of Rome, it was the festival of the goddess Fors Fortuna . People thronged the River Tiber and rowed in boats to the temples of Fortuna; "after undisclosed rituals they rowed back, garlanded and inebriated". Sandra Billington says there
2592-460: The lunar phase and geographic hemisphere . Some Wiccans use the term sabbat ( / ˈ s æ b ə t / ) to refer to each festival, represented as a spoke in the Wheel. Seasonal festival activities of pagan peoples differed across ancient Europe . Among the British Isles, Anglo-Saxons primarily marked the solar stations (solstices and equinoxes), while Insular Celtic peoples marked
2688-505: The midnight sun . Because of Finland's location around the Arctic Circle the nights near Midsummer day are short (with twilight even at midnight) or non-existent. This gives a great contrast to the darkness of the winter time. The temperature can vary between 0 °C and +30 °C, with an average of about 20 °C in the South. Many Finns leave the cities for Midsummer and spend time in
2784-457: The "fern seed", marking a treasure. In the old days, maidens would use special charms and bend over a well, naked, in order to see their future husband's reflection. In another tradition that continues still today, an unmarried woman collects seven different flowers and places them under her pillow to dream of her future husband. An important feature of the midsummer in Finland is the white night and
2880-526: The 'growing days', it was fitting that John the Baptist's should take place on the 'lessening days' ('diebus decrescentibus'), for the Baptist himself had proclaimed that 'he must increase; but I must decrease' (John 3:30). By the late sixth century, the Nativity of John the Baptist (24 June) had become an important feast, counterbalancing at midsummer the midwinter feast of Christmas. Within Christian theology , John
2976-510: The 13th century AD, in the Liber Memorandum of the parish church at Barnwell in the Nene Valley , which stated that parish youth would gather on the day to light fires, sing songs and play games. A Christian monk of Lilleshall Abbey , in the same century, wrote: In the worship of St John, men waken at even, and maken three manner of fires: one is clean bones and no wood, and is called
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3072-583: The 1950s, moved to the Friday and Saturday between 19 June and 26 June, respectively. The summer solstice is celabrated by Albanians often with the name Shën Gjini – Shën Gjoni ("Saint John"), but also with the name Festa e Malit or Festa e Bjeshkës ("Mountain Feast"), as well as Festa e Blegtorisë ("Livestock Feast"). It is associated with the production in agricultural and livestock activities. To celebrate this feast, bonfires are traditionally lit where straw
3168-518: The 90-minute cruise downstream. On Midsummer day, Bulgarians celebrate Enyovden. On the same day, the Eastern Orthodox church celebrates the day of John the Baptist and the rites and traditions of both holidays are often mixed. A fire-related ritual may also be performed in Bulgaria on that day; it involves barefoot dance on smoldering embers and is called Nestinarstvo . Bulgarian folklore states
3264-471: The American inclusive group The Troth , and the folkish Ásatrú Alliance . According to some pagan traditions , for each holiday on the wheel, different colours are displayed. This practice is not universal, however, and there are a wide range of ways which different sects or individuals would decorate for the sabbats. Many of these colours are also used in the different holidays interchangeably with
3360-507: The Americas aligned with sunrise or sunset on the summer solstice. The name 'midsummer' is attested in Old English as midsumor , and refers to the time around the summer solstice. Astronomically, the solstice falls on 20, 21 or 22 June, but traditionally, in northern Europe, the solstice and midsummer was reckoned as the night of 23–24 June, with summer beginning on May Day . Likewise, in
3456-401: The Baptist "was understood to be preparing the way for Jesus", with John 3:30 stating "He must increase, but I must decrease"; this is symbolized in the fact that the sun's height in the sky and length of the day "begins to diminish" after the summer solstice and begins to increase after the winter solstice. By the 6th century AD, several churches were dedicated to Saint John the Baptist and
3552-402: The Baptist baptised Christ in the River Jordan." On Saint John's Eve and Saint John's Day, churches arrange Saint John's worship services and family reunions also occur, which are an occasion for drinking and eating. In 1885, Holger Drachmann wrote a midsommervise (Midsummer hymn) called "Vi elsker vort land..." ("We Love Our Country") with a melody composed by P.E. Lange-Müller that
3648-490: The Christian festival of All Hallows' Day (All Saints' Day, Hallowmas), and All Hallows' Eve, are appropriations of Samhain by early Christian missionaries to the British Isles. Celebration commonly takes place outdoors in the form of a communal gathering. The precise dates on which festivals are celebrated often vary to some degree, as would the related agricultural milestones of the local region. Celebrations may occur on
3744-599: The Feast of Dedication and the Feast of Lots which are minor festivals. The following holidays are observed to some extent at the same time during the Southern Hemisphere 's summer, with the exception of Winter Solstice. Many other days are marked to celebrate events or people, around the world, but are not strictly holidays as time off work is rarely given. These are holidays that are not traditionally marked on calendars. These holidays are celebrated by various groups and individuals. Some are designed to honor or promote
3840-489: The Finnish god Ukko . After the celebrations were Christianized , the holiday became known as juhannus after John the Baptist (Finnish: Johannes Kastaja ). Since 1955, the holiday has always been on a Saturday (between 20 June and 26 June). Previously it was always on 24 June. Many of the celebrations of midsummer take place on Friday, midsummer eve, when many workplaces are closed and shops may close their doors at noon. In
3936-423: The Finnish midsummer celebration, bonfires (Finnish kokko ) are very common and are burned at lakesides and by the sea. Often branches from birch trees ( koivu ) are placed on both side of the front door to welcome visitors. Swedish-speaking Finns often celebrate by erecting a midsummer or maypole (Swedish midsommarstång , majstång ). Some Swedish-speaking Finns call the holiday Johannes or Johanni after
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4032-508: The Finnish term juhannus – or more accurately after the Biblical John the Baptist (="Johannes Döparen" in Swedish). In folk magic, midsummer was a very potent night and the time for many small rituals, mostly for young maidens seeking suitors and fertility. Will-o'-the-wisps were believed to appear at midsummer night, particularly to finders of the mythical " fern in bloom " and possessors of
4128-587: The Germanic and later Northern European winter festival of the same name, those celebrations by Germanic heathens likely followed the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples . Historical sources indicate those observances coinciding with the full moon of the lunisolar month following the winter solstice, ranging between January 5 and February 2 in the Gregorian calendar. The reversal of the Sun 's ebbing presence in
4224-597: The Goddess at Beltane , reaches his peak at the summer solstice , wanes in power at Lammas , passes into the underworld at Samhain (taking with him the fertility of the Goddess/Earth, who is now in her crone aspect ) until he is once again born from Her mother/crone aspect at Yule. The Goddess, in turn, ages and rejuvenates endlessly with the seasons, being courted by and giving birth to the Horned God . Many Wiccan, modern Druids , and eclectic modern pagans incorporate
4320-471: The Holly King. After the spring equinox the sun begins to wax again and the Holly King slowly regains his strength until he once again defeats the Oak King at the summer solstice. The two are ultimately seen as essential parts of a whole, light and dark aspects of the male God, and would not exist without each other. The Holly King is often portrayed as a woodsy figure, similar to the modern Santa Claus , dressed in red with sprigs of holly in his hair and
4416-483: The Northern hemisphere, is celebrated by neopagans under various names, including Midwinter and Yule . A name used by neo-druids is Alban Arthan . It has been recognised as a significant turning point in the yearly cycle since the late Stone Age . Ancient megalithic sites Newgrange and Stonehenge were carefully aligned with the winter solstice sunrise and sunset. While commonly referred to as "Yule", after
4512-503: The Oak King as a fertility god . Midsummer Day Midsummer is a celebration of the season of summer , taking place on or near the date of the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere ; the longest day of the year. The name "midsummer" mainly refers to summer solstice festivals of European origin. In these cultures it is traditionally regarded as the middle of summer, with the season beginning on May Day . Although
4608-495: The Southern Hemisphere often advance these dates by six months to coincide with their own seasons. Offerings of food, drink , various objects, etc. have been central in ritual propitiation and veneration for millennia. Modern pagan practice strongly avoids sacrificing animals in favour of grains, herbs, milk, wines, incense, baked goods, minerals, etc. The exception being with ritual feasts including meat , where
4704-621: The United Kingdom ( Cornwall especially), as well as other parts of the world: Canada, the United States, Puerto Rico, and also in the Southern Hemisphere (mostly in Brazil, Argentina and Australia). In Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and Quebec (Canada), the traditional Midsummer day, 24 June, is a public holiday . So it was formerly also in Sweden and Finland , but in these countries it was, in
4800-469: The Universe. The days that fall on the landmarks of the yearly cycle traditionally mark the beginnings and middles of the four seasons . They are regarded with significance and host to major communal festivals. These eight festivals are the most common times for community celebrations. In addition to the quarter and cross-quarter days, other festivals may also be celebrated throughout the year, especially in
4896-421: The astrologically precise quarter and cross-quarter days, the nearest full moon , the nearest new moon , or the nearest weekend for contemporary convenience. The festivals were originally celebrated by peoples in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere . Consequently, the traditional timing for seasonal celebrations do not align with the seasons in the Southern Hemisphere or near the equator. Pagans in
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#17328452852774992-525: The beginning of summer starts on Enyovden. It is thought that in the morning of Enyovden, when the sun rises, it "winks' and "plays". Anyone seeing the sunrise will be healthy throughout the year. It is believed that on Enyovden a variety of herbs have the greatest healing power, and that this is especially true at sunrise. Therefore, they have to be picked early in the morning before dawn. Women – sorceresses and enchantresses – go to gather herbs by themselves to cure and make charms. The number of herbs gathered for
5088-514: The beginning of summer. It is known as Walpurgis Night in Germanic countries. Ancient Rome observed Floralia at the same time of year. Following the Christianisation of Europe, the May Day festival was generally associated with maypole dancing and the crowning of the May Queen . May Day is celebrated in many neo-pagan traditions; in neo-druidry, it recognises the power of life in its fullness,
5184-827: The benefit of better aligning celebrations between the two neopagan groups. Gardner's first publications refer to the Celtic festivals as "May eve, August eve, November eve (Hallowe'en), and February eve". The phrase 'Wheel of the Year' was in use by the mid-1960s to describe an annual cycle of eight observances. Prominent Wiccan Aidan Kelly gave names to the Wiccan summer solstice (Litha) and equinox holidays (Ostara and Mabon) in 1974, which were then promoted by Timothy Zell through his Green Egg magazine. Popularisation of these names happened gradually; in her 1978 book Witchcraft For Tomorrow , influential Wiccan author Doreen Valiente did not use Kelly's holiday names, instead simply identifying
5280-636: The best-known Jaanik or midsummer ritual is the lighting of the bonfire and jumping over it. This is seen as a way of guaranteeing prosperity and avoiding bad luck. Likewise, to not light the fire is to invite the destruction of your house by fire. The fire also frightened away mischievous spirits who avoided it at all costs, thus ensuring a good harvest. So, the bigger the fire, the further the mischievous spirits stayed away. Estonian midsummer traditions are most similar to Finnish midsummer traditions but also have some similarities with Latvian, Lithuanian and Scandinavian traditions. Estonians celebrate Jaaniõhtu on
5376-544: The birtue that a great fire hat to purge the infection of the air. On the vigil of St John Baptist and St Peter and Paul the Apostles, every man's door being shadowed with green birch, long fennel, St John's Wort, Orpin, white lillies and such like, garnished upon with garlands of beautiful flowers, had also lamps of glass, with oil burinin in them all night, some hung branches of iron curiously wrought, containing hundreds of lamps lit at once, which made goodly show. Saint John's Day
5472-523: The boys collect bones and certain other rubbish, and burn them, and therefrom a smoke is produced on the air. They also make brands and go about the fields with the brands. Thirdly, the wheel which they roll. ... The wheel is rolled to signify that the sun then rises to the highest point of its circle and at once turns back Saint John's Fires, explained the monk of Winchcombe, were to drive away dragons , which were abroad on St John's Eve, poisoning springs and wells. A Christian interpretation of midsummer fires
5568-533: The context of polytheistic reconstructionism and other ethnic traditions. While festivals of the Wheel are steeped in solar mythology and symbolism , many Wiccan esbats are commonly based on lunar cycles . Together, they represent the most common celebrations in Wiccan-influenced forms of modern paganism, especially in Neopagan witchcraft groups. The winter solstice , falling on or about 21 December in
5664-425: The different Celtic nations . Slavic mythology tells of a persisting conflict involving Perun , god of thunder and lightning, and Veles , the black god and horned god of the underworld . Enmity between the two is initiated by Veles' annual ascent up the world tree in the form of a huge serpent and his ultimate theft of Perun's divine cattle from the heavenly domain. Perun retaliates to this challenge of
5760-401: The divine order by pursuing Veles, attacking with his lightning bolts from the sky. Veles taunts Perun and flees, transforming himself into various animals and hiding behind trees, houses, even people. (Lightning bolts striking down trees or homes were explained as results of this.) In the end Perun overcomes and defeats Veles, returning him to his place in the realm of the dead. Thus the order of
5856-487: The eve of the Summer Solstice (23 June) with bonfires. On the islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa , old fishing boats may be burned in the large pyres set ablaze. On Jaaniõhtu , Estonians all around the country will gather with their families, or at larger events to celebrate this important day with singing and dancing, as Estonians have done for centuries. The celebrations that accompany Jaaniõhtu carry on usually through
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#17328452852775952-614: The evening before, known as Saint John's Eve . These are commemorated by many Christian denominations , such as the Roman Catholic Church , Lutheran Churches , and Anglican Communion , as well as by freemasonry . In Sweden , Midsummer is such an important festivity that there have been proposals to celebrate the National Day of Sweden then, instead of on 6 June. There and in Finland , Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania , Midsummer
6048-427: The festival days with meats and drinks plentifully, whereunto they would invite their neighbours and passengers also to sit, and to be merry with them in great familiarity, praising God for his benefits bestowed on them. These were called bonfires as well of good amity amongst neighbours that, being before at controversy, were there by the labour of others reconciled, and made of bitter enemies, loving friends, as also for
6144-446: The festival than going to church. He complained about those who went to church, but did not enter, and instead spent their time lighting bonfires, drinking, dancing, singing and following pagan rituals. Midsummer marks a change in the farming year, specifically the break between the completion of spring sowing and the hard work of summer hay-making. Understandably, some of the rituals of Jaanipäev have very strong folkloric roots. One of
6240-568: The first French colonists. Great fires were lit at night. According to the Jesuit Relations , the first celebrations of St John's Day in New France took place around 1638. In 1834, Ludger Duvernay , printer and editor of La Minerve took the leadership of an effort to make 24 June the national holiday of the Canadiens ( French Canadians ). In 1908, Pope Pius X designated John the Baptist as
6336-530: The four midpoints between them. The four Celtic festivals were known to the Gaels as Beltane (1 May), Lughnasadh (1 August), Samhain (1 November), and Imbolc (1 February). Influential works such as The Golden Bough (1890) by James George Frazer explored various European seasonal festivals and their possible pagan roots. The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) by Margaret Murray examined reports of
6432-446: The greening of the world, youthfulness, and flourishing. The summer solstice , falling on or about 21 June in the Northern hemisphere, is celebrated by neopagans under various names, including Midsummer and Litha . A name used by neo-druids is Alban Hefin . The name Litha , is found in Bede 's The Reckoning of Time ( De Temporum Ratione , eighth century), which preserves
6528-413: The harvest. After the harvest, however, Jarilo is unfaithful to his wife and she vengefully slays him, returning him to the underworld and renewing enmity between Perun and Veles. Without her husband, god of fertility and vegetation, Morana – and all of nature with her – withers and freezes in the ensuing winter. She grows into the old and dangerous goddess of darkness and frost, eventually dying by
6624-438: The historical practices of world civilizations . British neopagans popularized the Wheel of the Year in the mid-20th century, combining the four solar events (" quarter days ") marked by many European peoples, with the four midpoint festivals ("cross-quarter days") celebrated by Insular Celtic peoples. Different paths of modern Paganism may vary regarding the precise timing of each observance, based on such distinctions as
6720-496: The holiday is named, while others draw on more eclectic sources. While Lughnasadh is one of the most common names for the holiday in Wicca currently, in early versions of Wiccan literature, the festival is referred to as August Eve . Lammas is often referenced interchangeably with Lughnasadh, though the two are sometimes recognised as distinct and separate holidays. While Lughnasadh has Celtic origins, Lammas has Anglo-Saxon origins, and
6816-496: The holiday with rituals culled from numerous other unrelated sources. At the ancient monument of Stonehenge , in the English county of Wiltshire, many people gather to observe the sunrise alignment with the stones on the summer solstice. In Neo-druidism , the term Alban Hefin is used for the summer solstice, as coined by the 18th century Welsh Romantic author and prolific literary forger Iolo Morganwg . Germanic neopagans call their summer solstice festival Litha , which
6912-429: The home and tree decorating are also common during this time. Imbolc is the traditional Gaelic name for 1 February and traditionally marks the first stirrings of spring . In Christianity it is Saint Brigid's Day, while 2 February is Candlemas . It aligns with the contemporary observance of Groundhog Day . It is time for purification and spring cleaning in anticipation of the year's new life. In ancient Rome, it
7008-468: The imagery of scripture. The Baptist was conceived six months before Christ (Luke 1:76); he was not himself the light, but was to give testimony concerning the light (John 1:8–9). Thus John's conception was celebrated on the eighth kalends of October (24 September: near the autumn equinox) and his birth on the eighth kalends of July (24 June: near the Summer solstice). If Christ's conception and birth took place on
7104-428: The inedible parts of the animal are often burned as offerings while the community eats the rest. Sacrifices are typically offered to gods and ancestors by burning them. Burying and leaving offerings in the open are also common in certain circumstances. The purpose of offering is to benefit the venerated, show gratitude, and give something back, strengthening the bonds between humans and divine and between members of
7200-541: The night, they are the largest and most important of the year, and the traditions are almost identical to Finland (read under Finland) and similar to neighbors Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden (read under Sweden). Jaanipäev is usually spent in a summer cottage, where people light bonfires, or at a festival, such as Pühajärve Jaanituli in Otepää . Since 1934, 23 June is also national Victory Day of Estonia and both 23rd and 24th are holidays and flag flying days . The Estonian flag
7296-428: The others, and colour decorations are not exclusively these colours. However, it is widely believed that Samhain has a particular association with black (and orange) only. Colour associations vary across sects and practice, nor are they an integral part to a holiday. Some practitioners do not have colour associations for sabbats at all. It is a misconception in some quarters of the modern pagan community, influenced by
7392-589: The patron saint of the French-Canadians. In 1925, 24 June became a legal holiday in Quebec and in 1977, it became the secular National Holiday of Quebec . It is still the tradition to light great fires on the night of 24 June. In Denmark , the solstitial celebration is called sankthans or sankthansaften ("St. John's Eve"). It was an official holiday until 1770, and in accordance with the Danish tradition of celebrating
7488-468: The region but also offer people the opportunity to thank Saint John for the rain. They also celebrate rural life and feature typical clothing, food, and dances (mainly the quadrille ). In Newfoundland and Labrador , St. John's Day is observed on the Monday nearest 24 June and commemorates John Cabot 's discovery of Newfoundland in 1497. In Quebec , the celebration of 24 June was brought to New France by
7584-493: The river." In 1482 Paul Walther, a German Franciscan friar, provided an early documentation of the Albanian traditional practice of lighting fires ( zjarre ) on Saint John's eve. In the 16th century AD, the English historian John Stow , described the celebration of Midsummer: the wealthier sort also before their doors near to the said bonfires would set out tables on the vigils furnished with sweet bread and good drink, and on
7680-554: The shores of lakes and other waterways, parks, etc.) Bonfires are lit in order to repel witches and other evil spirits , with the burnings sending the "witch" away to Bloksbjerg, the Brocken mountain in the Harz region of Germany where the great witch gathering was thought to be held on this day. Some Danes regard this tradition of burning witches as inappropriate. In Scandinavia, young people visited holy springs as "a reminder of how John
7776-403: The sky symbolises the rebirth of the solar god and presages the return of fertile seasons. From Germanic to Roman tradition, this is the most important time of celebration. Practices vary, but sacrifice offerings , feasting, and gift giving are common elements of Midwinter festivities. Bringing sprigs and wreaths of evergreenery (such as holly , ivy , mistletoe , yew , and pine ) into
7872-403: The smooth sea". In some neo-druid traditions the festival is called Alban Hefin . The sun in its greatest strength is greeted and celebrated on this holiday. While it is the time of greatest strength of the solar current, it also marks a turning point, for the sun also begins its time of decline as the wheel of the year turns. Arguably the most important neo-druidic festival, due to the focus on
7968-450: The solstices and equinoxes ("Lesser Sabbats") by their seasons. Valiente identified the four "Greater Sabbats", or fire festivals, by the names Candlemas, May Eve, Lammas, and Hallowe'en, while also naming their Gaelic counterparts Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasa, and Samhain. Due to early Wicca's influence on modern paganism and the syncretic adoption of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic motifs, Wheel of the Year festival names in English commonly combine
8064-457: The spirits of the departed are invited to attend the festivities. It is seen as a festival of darkness, which is balanced at the opposite point of the Wheel by the festival of Beltane , which is celebrated as a festival of light and fertility. Many neopagans believe that the veil between this world and the afterlife is at its thinnest point of the year at Samhain, making it easier to communicate with those who have departed. Some authorities claim
8160-583: The summer solstice falls on 20, 21 or 22 June in the Northern Hemisphere, it was traditionally reckoned to fall on 23–24 June in much of Europe. These dates were Christianized as Saint John's Eve and Saint John's Day . It is usually celebrated with outdoor gatherings that include bonfires and feasting. There is evidence that the summer solstice has been culturally important since the Neolithic era, with many ancient monuments throughout Eurasia and
8256-403: The sun and its light as a symbol of divine inspiration. Neo-druid groups frequently celebrate this event at Stonehenge. Lughnasadh or Lúnasa ( / ˈ l uː n æ s ə / ) is the Gaelic name for a harvest festival held on or around 1 August. Its Welsh name is Calan Awst . In English it is Lammas . Some Wiccan traditions base their celebrations on the Celtic deity Lugh , for whom
8352-473: The time of the spring equinox, Jarilo returns across the sea from the world of the dead, bringing with him fertility and spring from the evergreen underworld into the realm of the living. He meets his sister Morana and courts her. With the beginning of summer, the two are married bringing fertility and abundance to Earth, ensuring a bountiful harvest. The union of Perun's kin and Veles' stepson brings peace between two great gods, staving off storms which could damage
8448-511: The twentieth century: the Bricket Wood coven , a Wiccan group founded by Gerald Gardner , and the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids , a neo-Druidic group founded by Ross Nichols . Legend holds that Gardner and Nichols harmonised an eight-fold calendar during a naturist retreat, merging the four solar stations alongside their four midpoints as a unified festival cycle. Coordination eventually had
8544-533: The two also echoes the ancient Indo-European narrative of a fight between the sky-borne storm god and chthonic dragon . On the great night ( New Year ), two children of Perun are born, Jarilo , god of fertility and vegetation and son of the Moon, and Morana , goddess of nature and death and daughter of the Sun. On the same night, the infant Jarilo is snatched and taken to the underworld, where Veles raises him as his own. At
8640-466: The winter must be seventy-seven and a half – for all diseases, known and unknown. Festa Juninas , June Festival in Brazil, also known as São João Festivals because they celebrate the nativity of Saint John the Baptist (24 June), are annual Brazilian celebrations adapted from the European summer solstice, which occurs in the middle of the southern hemisphere's winter. These festivities, introduced by
8736-421: The world is maintained. The idea that storms and thunder are actually divine battle is pivotal to the changing of the seasons. Dry periods are identified as chaotic results of Veles' thievery. This duality and conflict represents an opposition of the natural principles of earth, water, substance, and chaos (Veles) and of heaven, fire, spirit, order (Perun), not a clash of good and evil. The cosmic battle between
8832-545: The writings of Robert Graves , that historical Celts had an overarching narrative for the entire cycle of the year. While the various Celtic calendars include some cyclical patterns, and a belief in the balance of light and dark, these beliefs vary between the different Celtic cultures . Modern preservationists and revivalists usually observe the four 'fire festivals' of the Gaelic Calendar, and some also observe local festivals that are held on dates of significance in
8928-464: The year's end only to be reborn again with her brother in the new year. In Wicca , the narrative of the Wheel of the Year traditionally centers on the sacred marriage of the God and the Goddess and the god / goddess duality. In this cycle, the God is perpetually born from the Goddess at Yule, grows in power at the vernal equinox (as does the Goddess, now in her maiden aspect ), courts and impregnates
9024-593: Was a shepherd's holiday, while the Gaels associated it with the onset of ewes' lactation, prior to birthing the spring lambs. For Celtic neopagans , the festival is dedicated to the goddess Brigid , daughter of The Dagda and one of the Tuatha Dé Danann . In the Reclaiming tradition , this is the traditional time for pledges and rededications for the coming year and for initiation among Dianic Wiccans . Ostara
9120-467: Was often marked with the blessing of loaves of bread by the church. The name Lammas (contraction of loaf mass ) implies it is an agrarian-based festival and feast of thanksgiving for grain and bread, which symbolises the first fruits of the harvest. The holiday of the autumnal equinox is known variously among neopagans as Mabon , Harvest Home , or Feast of the Ingathering . A name used by neo-druids
9216-415: Was set exactly six months earlier. Christ's Incarnation was closely tied to the 'growing days' ( diebus crescentibus ) of the solar cycle around which the Roman year was based. By the sixth century, this solar cycle was completed by balancing Christ's conception and birth against the conception and birth of his cousin, John the Baptist. Such a relationship between Christ and his cousin was amply justified by
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