116-528: Manuel Ávila Camacho ( Spanish pronunciation: [maˈnwel ˈaβila kaˈmatʃo] ; 24 April 1897 – 13 October 1955) was a Mexican politician and military leader who served as the President of Mexico from 1940 to 1946. Despite participating in the Mexican Revolution and achieving a high rank, he came to the presidency of Mexico because of his direct connection to General Lázaro Cárdenas and served him as
232-691: A believer." Since the revolution, all presidents had been anticlerical . During Camacho's term, the conflict between the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico and the Mexican government largely ended. He protected the working class by creating the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) in 1943. He worked to reduce illiteracy, continued land reform, and declared a rent freeze to benefit low-income citizens. He promoted election reform and passed
348-632: A billion people from starvation. Another important scientific figure was Yuan Longping , whose work on hybrid rice varieties is credited with saving at least as many lives. Similarly, MS Swaminathan is known as the Father of Green Revolution in India . The basic approach was the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds , synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. As crops began to reach
464-420: A company, Pioneer Hi-Bred International , that had revolutionized the hybridization of seed corn to greatly increase crop yields. He became appalled at the meager corn yields in Mexico, where 80 percent of the people lived off the land, and a Mexican farmer had to work as much as 500 hours to produce a single bushel of corn, about 50 times longer than the typical Iowa farmer planting hybrid seed. Wallace persuaded
580-446: A dictator (because of PRI's party discipline), the current times show the president's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, non jurisprudence -setting ruling stated he could return
696-405: A discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas . Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for
812-474: A failure of public action. Economist Peter Bowbrick disputes Sen's theory, arguing that Sen relies on inconsistent arguments and contradicts available information, including sources that Sen himself cited. Bowbrick further argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943 , and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine. Some have challenged
928-543: A heart ailment on 13 October 1955, aged 58. President of Mexico The president of Mexico (Spanish: Presidente de México ), officially the president of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos ), is the head of state and head of government of Mexico . Under the Constitution of Mexico , the president heads the executive branch of the federal government and
1044-717: A lack of infrastructure, and a general lack of will on the part of the governments. Yet environmental factors, such as the availability of water for irrigation, the high diversity in slope and soil types in one given area are also reasons why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa. A recent program in western Africa is attempting to introduce a new high yielding 'family' of rice varieties known as " New Rice for Africa " (NERICA). NERICA varieties yield about 30% more rice under normal conditions and can double yields with small amounts of fertilizer and very basic irrigation. However,
1160-468: A majority, and might actually be defeated. While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to allegations of electoral fraud. The 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN / PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. This historical defeat
1276-619: A new electoral law in 1946 to make it difficult for opposition parties of the far right and the far left to operate legally. The law established the following criteria that had to be fulfilled by any political organization to be recognized as a political party: On 18 January 1946, he had the Party of the Mexican Revolution (PRM) renamed to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), its current name. The Mexican army had been
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#17328557328771392-454: A reform was made on Article 34 reordering the colors of the sash. A new sash was made putting the colors of the sash back to the previous order that was used from 1924 through 2009. In swearing-in ceremonies, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of the Chamber of Deputies , who in turn gives it to the new president after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash
1508-451: A result of the Green Revolution, the energy input to produce a crop has increased faster, so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on agricultural machinery and chemical fertilizers , pesticides , herbicides , and defoliants ; which, as of 2014, are derived from crude oil , making agriculture increasingly reliant on crude oil extraction. The energy for
1624-439: A result of the introduction of Norman Borlaug 's dwarf wheat varieties. However, Borlaug was well aware of the implications of population growth. In his Nobel lecture he repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population. "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented,
1740-405: A right-hand man as his Chief of his General Staff during the Mexican Revolution and afterwards. He was called affectionately by Mexicans "The Gentleman President" ("El Presidente Caballero"). As president, he pursued "national policies of unity, adjustment, and moderation." His administration completed the transition from military to civilian leadership, ended confrontational anticlericalism, reversed
1856-509: A row. It is so entrenched in Mexican politics that it has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow city mayors , congresspeople and senators to run for a second consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election. The president remains barred from even non-consecutive reelection. The Constitution does not establish formal academic qualifications to serve as president. Most presidents during
1972-604: A seat of power since the Aztec Empire , with the materials of the current building taken from the palace of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II . The President also has the use of Chapultepec Castle , formerly the imperial palace of the Second Mexican Empire , then the official residence of Mexican presidents until 1934, when Lázaro Cárdenas established the presidential residence at Los Pinos . Andrés Manuel López Obrador moved
2088-548: A sector of the PRM, but it was eliminated from the organization of the PRI. Economically, he pursued the country's industrialization, which benefited only a small group, and income inequality increased. World War II stimulated Mexican industry, which grew by approximately 10% annually between 1940 and 1945, and Mexican raw materials fueled the US war industry. In agriculture, his administration invited
2204-516: A university degree although he studied at the National Preparatory School . He joined the revolutionary army in 1914 as a second lieutenant and reached the rank of colonel by 1920. The same year, he served as the chief of staff of the state of Michoacán under Lázaro Cárdenas and became his close friend. He opposed the 1923 rebellion of former revolutionary general Adolfo de la Huerta . In 1929, he fought under General Cárdenas against
2320-424: Is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect their successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single person holding power for decades, prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico's political system "the perfect dictatorship" since
2436-564: Is issued by Congress. The president's office may suggest a budget, but at the end of the day, it is Congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress. Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and
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#17328557328772552-652: Is now a major rice exporter, shipping nearly 4.5 million tons in 2006. China's large and increasing population meant that increasing food production, principally rice, was a top priority for the Chinese government. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party made it a priority to pursue agricultural development. They sought to solve China's food security issues by focusing on traditional crop production, biological pest control,
2668-1137: Is now in a state of overpopulation or overshoot with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth. A 2021 study found, contrary to the expectations of the Malthusian hypothesis, that the Green Revolution led to reduced population growth, rather than an increase in population growth. Although many people die each year as a direct or indirect result of hunger and poor nutrition, Malthus's more extreme predictions have failed to materialize. In 1798 Thomas Malthus made his prediction of impending famine. The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled again by 1973 without fulfilling Malthus's prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich , in his 1968 book The Population Bomb , said that "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980" and "Hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs." Ehrlich's warnings failed to materialize when India became self-sustaining in cereal production in 1974 (six years later) as
2784-551: Is the commander in chief of the Mexican Armed Forces . The office, which was first established by the federal Constitution of 1824 , is currently held by Claudia Sheinbaum , who was sworn-in on October 1, 2024. The office of the president is considered to be revolutionary, in the sense that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917 . Another legacy of the Mexican Revolution
2900-484: Is the Constitution's ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, called a sexenio . No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the president closely follow the presidential system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the executive branch of government and sets forth
3016-665: Is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and may only be worn by the current President. According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem , the President must wear the sash at the swearing-in ceremony, when they make their annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on 15 September of each year, and when they receive
3132-575: The Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judicial Power ; after it has heard and ruled on them, the Tribunal must either declare the election invalid or certify the results of the elections in accordance to their rulings. Once the Tribunal declares the election valid, it issues a Constancia de Mayoría (English: Certificate of Plurality , lit. 'Certificate of Majority') to
3248-750: The Gulf of Mexico , Camacho declared war against the Axis powers on 22 May 1942. Mexican participation in World War II was mainly limited to an airborne squadron, the 201st ( Escuadrón 201 ), to fight the Japanese in the Pacific. The squadron consisted of 300 men, and after receiving training in Texas, it was sent to the Philippines on 27 March 1945. On 7 June 1945, its missions started, and
3364-527: The Philippines , was found to have inferior flavor and be more glutinous and less savory than their native varieties, causing its price to be lower than the average market value. In the Philippines the heavy use of pesticides in rice production, in the early part of the Green Revolution, poisoned and killed off fish and weedy green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies . These were nutritious food sources for many poor Filipino farmers prior to
3480-548: The Rockefeller Foundation to introduce Green Revolution technology to bolster Mexico's agricultural productivity. In education, Camacho reversed Lázaro Cárdenas's policy of socialist education in Mexico and had the constitutional amendments that mandated it repealed. During his term, Camacho faced the difficulty of governing during World War II . After two of Mexico's ships ( Potrero del Llano and Faja de Oro ) carrying oil were destroyed by German submarines in
3596-479: The Third Agricultural Revolution , was a period of technology transfer initiatives that saw greatly increased crop yields. These changes in agriculture began in developed countries in the early 20th century and spread globally until the late 1980s. In the late 1960s, farmers began incorporating new technologies such as high-yielding varieties of cereals, particularly dwarf wheat and rice , and
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3712-515: The developing nations adopting them, such as privatizing fertilizer manufacture and distribution. Both the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation were heavily involved in its initial development in Mexico. A key leader was agricultural scientist Norman Borlaug , the "Father of the Green Revolution", who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. He is credited with saving over
3828-407: The 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the de facto monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, they effectively chose their successor as president by personally nominating the PRI's candidate in the next election. In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed them to designate party officials and candidates all
3944-488: The 1960s, vast quantities of lime (pulverized chalk or limestone ) were poured on the soil to reduce acidity. The effort went on for decades; by the late 1990s, between 14 million and 16 million tons of lime were being spread on Brazilian fields each year. The quantity rose to 25 million tons in 2003 and 2004, equaling around five tons of lime per hectare. As a result, Brazil has become the world's second biggest soybean exporter. Soybeans are also widely used in animal feed, and
4060-450: The 19th and early 20th centuries had careers in one of two fields: the armed forces (typically the army ) or the law. President Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946) was the last president to have been a career military officer. Most of his successors have been lawyers; in fact, all the presidents between 1958 and 1988 graduated from law school . Presidents Salinas (1988–1994) and Zedillo (1994–2000) were both trained as economists . Since
4176-583: The American "Green Revolution." Rather, it was characterized by the government's sponsorship of agricultural research in concert with peasant knowledge and feedback, earlier international research, nature-based pest control and many other non-industrial agricultural practices, in order to feed the rapidly growing population. Prominent in the development of productive hybrid rice was Yuan Longping , whose research hybridized wild strains of rice with existing strains. He has been dubbed "the father of hybrid rice", and
4292-523: The Constitution were published in the Official Journal of the Federation . The succession provisions have come into play only twice since the current constitution was enacted. In 1928, after the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón , Congress appointed Emilio Portes Gil as Interim President; Portes Gil served in the position for 14 months while new elections were called. Pascual Ortiz Rubio
4408-422: The Constitution which include the following: A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, and the President may issue decrees as well. They have all the power of laws but cannot be changed by a power that did not issue them. They are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which
4524-567: The Escobar Rebellion, the last serious military rebellion of disgruntled revolutionary generals, and the same year, he achieved the rank of brigadier general . He was married to Soledad Orozco García (1904–1996), who was born in Zapopan, Jalisco , and was a member of a prominent family in Jalisco. After his military service, Ávila Camacho entered the public arena in 1933 as the executive officer of
4640-488: The Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. High yield cereal crops have low quality proteins , with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates , and lack balanced essential fatty acids , vitamins , minerals and other quality factors. High-yield rice, introduced since 1964 to poverty-ridden Asian countries, such as
4756-404: The Green Revolution increased yields by 44% between 1965 and 2010. Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961–1985. Yields of rice, corn, and wheat increased steadily during that period. The production increases can be attributed equal to irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice. While agricultural output increased as
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4872-489: The Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation . The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. According to ICIS Fertilizers managing editor Julia Meehan, "People don't realise that 50% of
4988-456: The Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars . Agronomists bred high-yielding varieties of corn, wheat, and rice. HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes . A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar Norin 10 developed by Japanese agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka , which
5104-474: The Green Revolution, on the issues of cultivation and breeding. The technologies in cultivation are targeted at providing excellent growing conditions, which include modern irrigation projects, pesticides , and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer . The breeding technologies aimed at improving crop varieties developed through science-based methods including hybrids , combining modern genetics with plant-breeding trait selections. The novel technological development of
5220-628: The Green Revolution. Mexico has been called the 'birthplace' and 'burial ground' of the Green Revolution. It began with great promise and it has been argued that "during the twentieth century two 'revolutions' transformed rural Mexico: the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and the Green Revolution (1940–1970)." The genesis of the Green Revolution was a lengthy visit in 1940 by U.S. Vice President-elect Henry A. Wallace, who had served as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture during President Franklin Roosevelt's first two terms, and before government service, had founded
5336-506: The Interior for a period of up to sixty days until the President reassumes executive powers. As per Article 83, no person who has already served as president, whether elected, provisional, interim, or substitute, can be designated as provisional, interim, or substitute president. The designation of the Secretary of the Interior as the immediate successor dates to August 2012, when the changes to
5452-534: The Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP) to be the lead organization in raising productivity. Mexico became the showcase for extending the Green Revolution to other areas of Latin America and beyond, into Africa and Asia. New breeds of maize, beans, and wheat produced bumper crops with additional inputs (such as fertilizer and pesticides) and careful cultivation. Many Mexican farmers who had been dubious about
5568-483: The Mexican government founded the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), which became a base for international agricultural research. Agriculture in Mexico had been a sociopolitical issue, a key factor in some regions' participation in the Mexican Revolution. It was also a technical issue enabled by a cohort of trained agronomists who advised ejidatarios on how to increase productivity. In
5684-525: The Party of the Mexican Revolution and is now the Institutional Revolutionary Party . From then, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state until 1989, when Ernesto Ruffo Appel was elected the first state governor from an opposition party. Toward the end of their term, the incumbent president, in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as [el dedazo] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |links= ( help ) ( transl. appointed by
5800-530: The Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century, though imports still exceeded exports, according to data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. From 1966 to 1986, the Philippines imported around 2,679,000 metric tons and exported only 632,000 metric tons of milled rice. By 1980, however, problems with the credit scheme rendered the loans accessible only to rich landowners while leaving poor farmers in debt. The program
5916-566: The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States and the laws that emanate from it, and to perform loyally and patriotically the office of President of the Republic which the people have conferred upon me, in all actions looking after the good and prosperity of the Union; and if I were not to do so, may the Nation demand it of me. Note that Article 83 of the mexican constitution states that
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#17328557328776032-598: The Rockefeller Foundation to fund an agricultural station in Mexico to hybridize corn and wheat for arid climates, and to lead it, he hired a young Iowa agronomist named Norman Borlaug . The project was supported by the Mexican government under new President Manuel Ávila Camacho , and the U.S. government, the United Nations , and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). For the U.S. government, its neighbor Mexico
6148-473: The Secretariat of National Defense and became Secretary of National Defense in 1937. In 1940, he was elected president of Mexico after he had been nominated to represent the party that later became the Institutional Revolutionary Party . Camacho won the controversial presidential election over right-wing candidate and revolutionary-era General Juan Andreu Almazán . Camacho, a professed Catholic , said, "I am
6264-538: The United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self-imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. Carlos Salinas de Gortari also lived in a self-imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas , freed after he
6380-599: The United States and taught at the universities where they formerly studied: Zedillo at Yale University and Calderón at Harvard Kennedy School . Two former presidents, Vicente Fox and Andrés Manuel López Obrador, live in Mexico. As of September 2024, Carlos Salinas de Gortari lived in the United Kingdom and both Felipe Calderón and Enrique Peña Nieto lived in Spain. Green Revolution The Green Revolution , or
6496-553: The United States, which had existed in the decades before his presidency, were resolved. Especially in the early years of World War II, Mexican-American relations were excellent. The United States provided Mexico with financial aid for improvements on the railway system and the construction of the Pan American Highway. Moreover, the Mexican foreign debt was reduced. When his term ended in 1946, Camacho retired to work on his farm. In 1951, President Miguel Alemán Valdés , nearing
6612-523: The breeding lines became a new cultivar : IR8 rice . The administration of President Ferdinand Marcos made the promotion of IR8 the lynchpin of the Masagana 99 program, along with a credit program. The new variety required the use of fertilizers and pesticides but produced substantially higher yields than the traditional cultivars. Annual rice production in the Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades. The switch to IR8 rice made
6728-525: The budget with observations). Upon taking office, the President raises their right arm to shoulder-level and takes the following oath: Protesto guardar y hacer guardar la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos y las leyes que de ella emanen, y desempeñar leal y patrióticamente el cargo de Presidente de la República que el pueblo me ha conferido, mirando en todo por el bien y prosperidad de la Unión; y si así no lo hiciere que la Nación me lo demande . Translation: I affirm to follow and uphold
6844-464: The candidate who obtained a plurality . That candidate then becomes President-elect. The final decision is made in September, two months after the election. The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States , providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than their American counterpart. For the first 71 years after the enactment of
6960-554: The center and south of Mexico. Agricultural productivity had fallen significantly by the 1940s. After Borlaug's agricultural station was established, in 1941, a team of U.S. scientists, Richard Bradfield (Cornell University), Paul C. Mangelsdorf (Harvard University), and Elvin Charles Stakman (under whom Borlaug had studied at the University of Minnesota ) surveyed Mexican agriculture to recommend policies and practices. In 1943,
7076-806: The conflict and also 300,000 guest workers under the Bracero program to replace some of the Americans who had left to fight in the war. Mexico also resumed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union , which had been broken off during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas . In 1945, Mexico signed the United Nations Charter , and in 1946, it became the headquarters of the Inter-American Conference about War and Peace. Conflicts with
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#17328557328777192-549: The cost of fertilizers (and other investments) to the price of the produce." In 1960 during the administration of President Carlos P. Garcia the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation established the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). A rice crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-gen and Peta was done at IRRI in 1962. In 1966, one of
7308-475: The democratic transition, presidents have a wider academic background. Although Presidents Calderón (2006–2012) and Peña Nieto (2012–2018) were both lawyers, President Fox (2000–2006) studied business administration, Andrés Manuel López Obrador , (2018-2024) studied political sciences and current President Claudia Sheinbaum studied physics. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1904, when President Porfirio Díaz extended it to six years for
7424-417: The diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. They are also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity". The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat. The only exception is during the swearing-in ceremony, when it is worn over the coat so that the out-going president may easily take the sash off and drape it over
7540-554: The doubling of harvests in these countries. Plant scientists figured out several parameters related to the high yield and identified the related genes which control the plant height and tiller number. With advances in molecular genetics , the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA 20-oxidase, ga1 , ga1-3 ), wheat reduced-height genes ( Rht ) and a rice semidwarf gene ( sd1 ) were cloned . These were identified as gibberellin biosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes. Stem growth in
7656-425: The early 1980s when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president's power was no longer absolute but still impressive. An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once they assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection"
7772-431: The end of his six-year term, expressed his desire to have the Constitution amended to allow him to be re-elected. Ávila Camacho and Cárdenas had former president Abelardo L. Rodríguez give a statement that they didn't "think extension of the presidential term or re-election is convenient for the country." This allowed for the transfer of power to President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines in 1954. Ávila Camacho died at his farm of
7888-403: The existing academic literature, the Green Revolution "contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation." The Green Revolution spread technologies that already existed but had not been widely implemented outside industrialized nations. Two kinds of technologies were used in
8004-602: The finger ). Until 1988, the PRI's candidate was virtually assured of election, winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote. In 1988, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center-left parties (now the PRD ). Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to
8120-453: The first time in Mexico's history, and then again from 1917 to 1928 after a new constitution reversed the change made by Díaz in 1904. Finally, the presidential term was set at six years in 1928 and has remained unchanged since then. The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election . The former president, Andrés Manuel López Obrador ,
8236-469: The first time since 1910; within 20 years, corn production had tripled, and wheat production had increased five-fold. In 1943, Mexico imported half of its wheat requirements, however by 1956 it had become self-sufficient and it was exporting half a million tons of wheat by 1964. Within 30 years, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for ultimately saving two billion people from starvation. Mexico
8352-422: The food security it sought. In 1979, there were 490 million Chinese people living in poverty. In 2014, there were only 82 million. Half of China's population had once been hungry and in poverty, but by 2014, only 6% remained so. Brazil's vast inland cerrado region was regarded as unfit for farming before the 1960s because the soil was too acidic and poor in nutrients, according to Norman Borlaug . However, from
8468-479: The globe, world grain production increased by 160%. The production increases fostered by the Green Revolution are often credited with having helped to avoid widespread famine , and for feeding billions of people. Some criticisms generally involve some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such concerns often revolve around the idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable, and argue that humanity
8584-499: The implementation of modern technology and science, creating food reserves for the population, high-yield seed varieties, multi-cropping, controlled irrigation, and protecting food security. This began with the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, which ended private land ownership and gave land back to the peasants. Unlike with Mexico, the Philippines, India, or Brazil, the beginning of China's unique Green Revolution were unrelated to
8700-652: The incoming president (Article 36). In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; the flag has imprinted the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold. The official residence and workplace of the President is the National Palace , a building facing the Plaza de la Constitución ( Constitution Square ) in Mexico City . The site has been
8816-577: The increase in a number of calories consumed per Mexican. The science of hybridization was seen as a valuable way to feed the poor and would relieve some pressure of the land redistribution process. In general, the success of "Green Revolution" depended on the use of machinery for cultivation and harvest, on large-scale agricultural enterprises with access to credit (often from foreign investors), government-supported infrastructure projects, and access to low-wage agricultural workers. Within eight years of Wallace's visit, Mexico had no need to import food, for
8932-407: The introduction of pesticides, further impacting the diets of locals. A critic of the Green Revolution, American journalist Mark Dowie argues that "the primary objective of the program was geopolitical: to provide food for the populace in undeveloped countries and so bring social stability and weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency." Citing internal Foundation documents, Dowie states that
9048-563: The large volume of soy produced in Brazil has contributed to Brazil's rise to become the biggest exporter of beef and poultry in the world. Several parallels can also be found in Argentina's boom in soybean production as well. There have been numerous attempts to introduce the successful concepts from the Mexican and Indian projects into Africa. These programs have generally been less successful. Reasons cited include widespread corruption, insecurity,
9164-442: The local ecology, contaminating waterways and endangering the health of workers and newborns. One of the participants in the Mexican experiment, Edwin J. Wellhausen , summarized the factors leading to its initial success. These include: high yield plants without disease resistivity, adaptability, and ability to use fertilizers; improved use of soils, adequate fertilizers, and control of weeds and pests; and "a favorable ratio between
9280-435: The maximum improvement possible through selective breeding , genetic modification technologies were developed to allow for continued efforts. Studies show that the Green Revolution contributed to widespread eradication of poverty, averted hunger for millions, raised incomes, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, reduced land use for agriculture, and contributed to declines in infant mortality. The term "Green Revolution"
9396-418: The mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype . Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. High-yielding varieties significantly outperform traditional varieties in
9512-456: The post-World War II era, the government sought development in agriculture that bettered technological aspects of agriculture in regions not dominated by small-scale ejido cultivators. This drive for agricultural transformation brought Mexico self-sufficiency in food , and in the political sphere during the Cold War , helped stem unrest and the appeal of Communism. The Mexican government created
9628-540: The powers of the president, as well as the qualifications for the office. The president is vested with the "Supreme Executive Power of the Union". To be eligible to serve as president, Article 82 of the Constitution specifies that the following requirements must be met: The ban on any sort of presidential re-election dates back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the Mexican Revolution , which erupted after Porfirio Díaz 's fraudulent victory on his seventh re-election in
9744-479: The presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers. In the absence of these inputs, traditional varieties may outperform high-yielding varieties. Therefore, several authors have challenged the apparent superiority of high-yielding varieties not only compared to the traditional varieties alone, but by contrasting the monocultural system associated with high-yielding varieties with the polycultural system associated with traditional ones. By one 2021 estimate,
9860-574: The president begins his term at 00:00 ( UTC-06:00 ) on October 1st, so the president assumes the powers of the office at that time, regardless of when the oath is taken. The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with green on top, white in the center, and red on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest-high. In November 2018,
9976-451: The president's powers were cloaked by democratic practice. With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administration, called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy". The current rights and powers of the president of Mexico are established, limited and enumerated by Article 89 of
10092-527: The presidential residence back to the National Palace upon the start of his term in 2018. Articles 84 and 85 of the Mexican Constitution state that "in case of absolute absence of a President" the following should happen: Article 85 additionally states that if the president requests a temporary absence – once authorized by the Congress – executive powers devolve provisionally upon the Secretary of
10208-428: The previous five years. When Cárdenas showed he would rule in name and fact, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho , establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors. For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in
10324-530: The program has been beset by problems getting the rice into the hands of farmers, and to date the only success has been in Guinea , where it currently accounts for 16% of rice cultivation. After a famine in 2001 and years of chronic hunger and poverty, in 2005 the small African country of Malawi launched the "Agricultural Input Subsidy Program" by which vouchers are given to smallholder farmers to buy subsidized nitrogen fertilizer and corn seeds. Within its first year,
10440-598: The program was reported to have had extreme success, producing the largest corn harvest of the country's history, enough to feed the country with tons left over. The program has advanced yearly ever since. Various sources claim that the program has been an unusual success, hailing it as a "miracle". Malawi experienced a 40% drop in corn production in 2015 and 2016. A 2021, a randomized control trial on temporary subsidies for corn farmers in Mozambique found that adoption of Green Revolution technology led to increased yields in both
10556-698: The push for socialist education, and restored a working relationship with the US during World War II . Manuel Ávila was born in Teziutlán , a small but economically important town in Puebla , to middle-class parents, Manuel Ávila Castillo and Eufrosina Camacho Bello. His older brother, Maximino Ávila Camacho , was a more dominant personality. There were several other siblings, among them a sister, María Jovita Ávila Camacho, and several brothers. Two of his brothers, Maximino Ávila Camacho and Rafael Ávila Camacho, served as governors of Puebla . Manuel Ávila Camacho did not receive
10672-437: The revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only. Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize
10788-455: The ruling President usually found their efforts blocked: the PRI's Zedillo by opposing PAN/PRD congressmen, and later the PAN's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and vice versa. This situation, novel in a country where Congress was +90% dominated by the president's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president's power. Formerly almost
10904-407: The scientists or hostile to them (often a mutual relationship of discord) came to see the scientific approach to agriculture as worth adopting. The requirements for the full package of inputs of new strains of seeds, fertilizer, synthetic pesticides, and water were often not within the reach of small-scale farmers. The application of pesticides could be hazardous for farmers. Their use often damaged
11020-419: The self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing food security , and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen wrote that large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and
11136-620: The short- and long-term. In 1970, the year that Borlaug won the Nobel Peace Prize, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank ; on 19 May 1971, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) was established, co-sponsored by the FAO , IFAD , and UNDP . CGIAR has added many research centers throughout
11252-534: The squadron participated in the Battle of Luzon . By the end of the war, 5 Mexican soldiers had lost their lives in combat. Despite its short participation in the war, Mexico belonged to the victorious nations and had thus gained the right to participate in the postwar international conferences. Mexico's joining the conflict on the side of the Allies improved relations with the United States. Mexico provided both raw material for
11368-486: The title "president" until death but are rarely referred by it; they are commonly called ex-presidents. They were also given protection by the former Estado Mayor Presidencial . Prior to 2018, former presidents also received a lifetime pension, though they could refuse it, as Ernesto Zedillo did. The system was abolished in 2018. Unlike in some other republics, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead
11484-612: The value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile Frison of Bioversity International , the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as fewer people are affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A deficiencies . Frison further asserts that almost 60% of yearly deaths of children under age five in developing countries are related to malnutrition. The strategies developed by
11600-452: The way down to the local level. They thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of their power had to be shared with unions and other groups, but as an individual, they had no peers). This and their constitutional powers made some political commentators describe the president as a six-year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency". The situation remained largely unchanged until
11716-448: The widespread use of chemical fertilizers (to produce their high yields, the new seeds require far more fertilizer than traditional varieties ), pesticides , and controlled irrigation . At the same time, newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization , were adopted, often as a package of practices to replace traditional agricultural technology. This was often in conjunction with loans conditional on policy changes being made by
11832-450: The world's food relies on fertilisers." The world population has grown by about five billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution. India saw annual wheat production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006. The average person in the developing world consumes roughly 25% more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around
11948-515: The world. CGIAR has responded, at least in part, to criticisms of Green Revolution methodologies. This began in the 1980s, and mainly was a result of pressure from donor organizations. Methods like agroecosystem analysis and farming system research have been adopted to gain a more holistic view of agriculture. According to a 2012 review in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of
12064-428: Was 10 times the yield of traditional rice. IR8 was a success throughout Asia and dubbed the "Miracle Rice". IR8 was also developed into Semi-dwarf IR36 . In the 1960s, rice yields in India were about two tons per hectare; by the mid-1990s, they had risen to 6 tons per hectare. In the 1970s, rice cost about $ 550 a ton; in 2001, it cost under $ 200 a ton. India became one of the world's most successful rice producers, and
12180-403: Was accepted on election night by the PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election. After a presidential election, political parties may issue challenges to the election. These challenges are heard by
12296-543: Was also noted to have become a vehicle of political patronage. In 1961, Norman Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian Minister of Agriculture Dr. M. S. Swaminathan . Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The state of Punjab
12412-589: Was an important experimental case in the use of technology and scientific expertise in agriculture that became the model for international agricultural development. Mexico sought to transform agricultural productivity, particularly with irrigated rather than dry-land cultivation in its northwest, to solve its problem of lack of food self-sufficiency. In the center and south of Mexico, where large-scale production faced challenges, agricultural production languished. Increased production promised food self-sufficiency in Mexico to feed its growing and urbanizing population with
12528-471: Was considered a national hero in China. Chinese rice production met the nation's food security needs, and today they are a leading exporter of rice. In recent years, however, extensive use of ground water for irrigation has drawn down aquifers and extensive use of fertilizers has increased greenhouse gas emissions. China has not expanded the area of cultivable land, China's unique high yields per hectare gave China
12644-416: Was elected in 2018 with a modern-era record of 53% of the popular vote in 2018. The previous president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38% of the popular vote in 2012. Former President Felipe Calderón won with 36.38% of the votes in the 2006 general election , finishing only 0.56% above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results ). In 2000, former President Vicente Fox
12760-410: Was elected president in the special elections that followed in 1930, but he resigned in 1932. Abelardo L. Rodríguez was then appointed Interim President to fill out the remainder of Ortiz Rubio's term (under current law Rodríguez would be Substitute President, but at the time there was no distinction between Interim, Substitute, and Provisional presidents). Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry
12876-528: Was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48.7% of the vote in 1994, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50.4% in the 1988 election. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 following the Mexican Revolution , the government was unstable until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, which later changed its name to
12992-523: Was first used by William S. Gaud, the administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), in a speech on 8 March 1968. He noted the spread of the new technologies as: These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran . I call it
13108-473: Was jailed in the early days of Zedillo's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu . Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several universities in that country. Ernesto Zedillo and Felipe Calderón two surviving former presidents lived in
13224-637: Was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply, the presence of Indus plains which make it one of the most fertile plains on earth, and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals. India soon adopted IR8 rice. In 1968, Indian agronomist S.K. De Datta published his findings that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. This
13340-801: Was sent to Orville Vogel at Washington State University by Cecil Salmon , was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. In the 1960s, with a food crisis in Asia, the spread of high-yielding variety rice greatly increased. Dr. Norman Borlaug , the "Father of the Green Revolution", bred rust-resistant cultivars which have strong and firm stems, preventing them from falling over under extreme weather at high levels of fertilization. CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo – International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvements) conducted these breeding programs and helped spread high-yielding varieties in Mexico and countries in Asia like India and Pakistan . These programs led to
13456-468: Was the recipient of knowledge and technology of the Green Revolution, and it was an active participant with financial supports from the government for agriculture and Mexican agronomists. In the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution, the government had redistributed land to ejidatarios in some parts of the country which had broken the back of the hacienda system. During the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940), land reform in Mexico reached its apex in
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