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71-544: James Avery Hopwood (May 28, 1882 – July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age . He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920, namely "The Gold Diggers," "The Bat" and "Spanish Love" and "Ladies' Night (In a Turkish Bath)". Hopwood was born to James and Jule Pendergast Hopwood on May 28, 1882, in Cleveland , Ohio. He graduated from Cleveland's West High School in 1900. In 1901, he began attending

142-563: A countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on. Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. Al Capone , the famous organized crime leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in A Renegade History of the United States , states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'" Also from A Renegade History of

213-401: A grey undistinguished tone quality." The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924). (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it does not convey his use of swing.) Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz

284-429: A large trust from him, but he had not made arrangements for the disposition of other items, including literary rights. While she was working through the legal issues with his estate, Jule Hopwood fell ill and died on March 1, 1929. She was buried next to her son. Hopwood's plays were very successful commercially, but they did not have the lasting literary significance he hoped to achieve. The terms of Hopwood's will left

355-406: A lock and open the door. As to where speakeasies obtained alcohol, there were rum runners and bootleggers. Rum running, in this case, was the organized smuggling of liquor by land or sea into the U.S. Decent foreign liquor was high-end alcohol during prohibition, and William McCoy had some of the best of it. Bill McCoy was in the rum-running business, and at certain points of time was ranked among

426-465: A major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of Black-American and European-American musical parentage with a performance orientation. From African traditions, jazz derived its rhythm, "blues", and traditions of playing or singing in one's own expressive way. From European traditions, jazz derived its harmony and instruments. Louis Armstrong brought

497-405: A new style/genre was formed called Marabi . In the 1940s, the genre had taken the country by storm, and by the 1950s, another style of South African jazz was formed called Kwela with an addition of the modern or traditional pennywhistle . South African jazz has created many stars of which some became famous worldwide e.g. Miriam Makeba , Hugh Masekela . During this period, jazz began to get

568-428: A nightlife for black people who were living in these slums. During this period in the early 20th century, American jazz was introduced on South African radios , and it became the most popular style of music in the urban areas of South Africa. The biggest consumer of jazz music was the newly black urban class in these shebeens based on the slums of South Africa. Therefore, jazz got fused with African Traditional Music and

639-555: A novel that he hoped would "expose" the strictures the commercial theater machine imposed on playwrights, but the manuscript was never published. Jack Sharrar recovered the manuscript for this novel in 1982 during his research for Avery Hopwood, His Life and Plays . The novel was published in July 2011 by Mondial Books (New York) as The Great Bordello, a Story of the Theatre , edited and with an Afterword by Sharrar. Jazz Age The Jazz Age

710-498: A platform for rebellion on multiple fronts. In dance halls, jazz clubs, and speakeasies, women found refuge from societal norms that confined them to conventional roles. These spaces offered them more freedom in their speech, attire, and behavior. Reflecting the prevalent Freudian psychology of the 1920s, jazz promoted "childlike" behavior, with frequenters known as Flappers often called "Jazz Babies." The uninhibited and spontaneous nature of jazz encouraged primal and sensual expression. As

781-492: A reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring Twenties . Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: "[I]t is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion." The media also spoke ill of it. The New York Times in

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852-755: A substantial portion of his estate to his alma mater, the University of Michigan, for the establishment of the Avery Hopwood and Jule Hopwood Creative Writing Awards . The bequest stipulated: "It is especially desired that students competing for prizes shall be allowed the widest possible latitude, and that the new, the unusual, and the radical shall be especially encouraged." Famous Hopwood award winners include Robert Hayden , Marge Piercy , Arthur Miller , Betty Smith , Lawrence Kasdan , John Ciardi , Mary Gaitskill , Edmund White , Nancy Willard , Frank O'Hara , and Steve Hamilton . Throughout his life, Hopwood worked on

923-458: A total of nine breweries. Finally, some racketeers stole industrial grain alcohol and redistilled it to sell in speakeasies. From 1919, Kid Ory 's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. The year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith ,

994-493: A true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, which included instrumentalist's Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), and wife Lil on piano, where he popularized scat singing . Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers . There

1065-564: A vehicle for the popularization of jazz music in America. Although jazz was taken over by the white middle-class population, it facilitated the mesh of African American traditions and ideals with white middle-class society. By the 1920s jazz had spread around the world. According to The New York Times in 1922: Jazz latitude is marked as indelibly on the globe as the heavy line of the equator. It runs from Broadway along Main Street to San Francisco: to

1136-464: A willingness to talk about sex freely, and radio concerts. Dances like the Charleston , developed by African Americans, suddenly became popular among the youth. Traditionalists were aghast at what they considered the breakdown of morality. Some urban middle-class African Americans perceived jazz as "devil's music", and believed the improvised rhythms and sounds were promoting promiscuity. Jazz served as

1207-421: Is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two. Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz , a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall " musette ", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form

1278-607: Is often referred to in conjunction with the Roaring Twenties , and overlapped in significant cross-cultural ways with the Prohibition Era . The movement was largely affected by the introduction of radios nationwide. During this time, the Jazz Age was intertwined with the developing youth culture . The movement would also help in introducing jazz culture to Europe. The term jazz age was in popular usage prior to 1920. In 1922, American writer F. Scott Fitzgerald further popularized

1349-499: The Hot Seven . It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that many women jazz singers, such as Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday, were recognized as successful artists in the music world. Another famous female vocalist who attained stardom at the tail-end of the Jazz Age was Ella Fitzgerald, one of the more popular female jazz singers in the United States for more than half a century and later dubbed "The First Lady of Song". She worked with all

1420-604: The University of Michigan in Ann Arbor . However, his family experienced financial difficulties, so for his second year he transferred to Adelbert College . He returned to the University of Michigan in the fall of 1903, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1905. Hopwood started out as a journalist for the Cleveland Leader as its New York correspondent, but within a year had his first play, Clothes (1906), produced on Broadway, with

1491-659: The Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (1959), and Shep Fields 's Rippling Rhythm Orchestra at Chicago's landmark Palmer House Hotel (1936), New York City's "Star-light Roof" in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (1937), and the Copacabana nightclub. Young people in the 1920s used the influence of jazz to rebel against the traditional culture of previous generations. This youth rebellion of the 1920s included such things as flapper fashions, women who smoked cigarettes in public,

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1562-596: The 1920s intimated that jazz was responsible for the decline of Western civilization and of the quality of Italian tenors, a poor trade balance with Hungary, a classical musician's fatal heart attack, and frightening bears in Siberia . As jazz flourished, American elites who preferred classical music sought to expand the listenership of their favored genre, hoping that jazz would not become mainstream. Conversely, jazz became an influence on composers as diverse as George Gershwin and Herbert Howells . Hopwood Award Under

1633-400: The 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a crime wave that shocked the U.S. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such as Al Capone , and approximately $ 60 million (equivalent to $ 1,271,666,667 in 2023) in illegal alcohol was smuggled across

1704-436: The 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s. The introduction of large-scale radio broadcasts enabled the rapid national spread of jazz in 1932. The radio

1775-506: The BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very soon, the resulting music craze in the United Kingdom led to a moral panic in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist John Bulloch Souter 's controversial 1926 painting The Breakdown . The painting has been described as embodying

1846-576: The Hawaiian Islands, which it has lyricized to fame; to Japan, where it is hurriedly adopted as some new Western culture; to the Philippines, where it is royally welcomed back as its own; to China where the mandarins and even the coolies look upon it as a helpful sign that the Occident at last knows what is music; to Siam, where the barbaric tunes strike a kindred note and come home to roost; to India, where

1917-550: The Hopwood Awards Program, "This is the oldest and best-known series of writing prizes in the country, and it is a very good indicator of future success." Awards are offered in these genres: drama/screenplay, essay , the novel , short fiction , nonfiction , and poetry . These awards are classified under two categories, graduate or undergraduate, except the novel and drama/screenplay, which are combined categories. Award amounts for this contest vary, but usually fall in

1988-589: The Summer Hopwood Contest. This contest is open only to freshmen and sophomores who are enrolled in writing courses. Awards are given in the categories of nonfiction, fiction, and poetry. The Hopwood Program administers the Hopwood Award, and several other awards in writing. It is located in the Hopwood Room at the University of Michigan and serves the needs and interests of Hopwood contestants. The room

2059-668: The U.S. His success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate kind of music. Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson's band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the Cotton Club in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines ' Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All significantly influenced

2130-493: The United States, "The pianist Earl Hines remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got along well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very free with $ 100 tips." The illegal culture of speakeasies led to what was known as "black and tan" clubs which had multiracial crowds. There were many speakeasies, especially in Chicago and New York City . New York City had, at

2201-865: The aid of playwright Channing Pollock. Hopwood eventually became known as "The Playboy Playwright" and specialized in comedies and farces, some of them with material considered risqué at the time. One play, The Demi-Virgin in 1921, prompted a court case because of its suggestive subject matter, including a risque game of cards, "Stripping Cupid". The case was dismissed. His many plays included Nobody's Widow (1910), starring Blanche Bates ; Fair and Warmer (1915), starring Madge Kennedy (filmed in 1919); The Gold Diggers (1919), starring Ina Claire in New York and Tallulah Bankhead in London; (filmed in 1923 as The Gold Diggers , in 1928 as Gold Diggers of Broadway and also as Gold Diggers of 1933 ); Ladies' Night , 1920, starring Charlie Ruggles (filmed in 1928);

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2272-416: The best. To avoid being caught, he sold liquor just outside the territorial waters of the United States. Buyers would come to him to pick up his booze as a precaution for McCoy. McCoy's liquor specialty was selling high-quality whiskey without diluting the alcohol. Bootlegging was making and or smuggling alcohol around the U.S. As selling the alcohol could make plenty of money, there are several major ways this

2343-482: The borders of Canada and the United States. The resulting illicit speakeasies that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes. By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets", attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America. Prohibition ended with

2414-431: The city/town in order to earn an income. Due to discriminative laws that forbade black people from living in the suburbs and owning property, most of them ended up living in slums which became townships. In these slums, shebeens were opened by black women with the purpose of selling home-made, Traditional African beer (locally known as ' Umqombothi ') in order to earn an income. Eventually, these shebeens would provide

2485-599: The conclusion of World War I, the onset of women's suffrage, and Prohibition, and ultimately crumbled with the Great Crash of 1929. The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie , Cab Calloway , Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey , Duke Ellington , Benny Goodman , Fletcher Henderson , Earl Hines , Harry James , Jimmie Lunceford , Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw . Although it

2556-588: The development of big band-style swing jazz. By 1930, the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world. Several musicians grew up in musical families, where a family member would often teach how to read and play music. Included in this group was the bandleader Guy Lombardo , who collaborated with his brothers Carmen and Lebert in Canada to form the Royal Canadians Orchestra in

2627-462: The development of the active musical environment of the city . In New Orleans, the development of jazz was influenced by Creole music , ragtime , and blues . Jazz is seen by many as "America's classical music". The earliest Jazz styles, which emerged in New Orleans, Chicago, and New York in the early 1920s, are sometimes referred to as " dixieland jazz." In the 1920s, jazz became recognized as

2698-560: The early 1920s. By 1929 their "sweet" big band appeared regularly at the landmark Roosevelt Hotel in New York City and later in 1959 at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel , where they entertained audiences nationwide for decades with a velvety-smooth interpretation of the "sweetest music this side of heaven". Despite Benny Goodman 's claim that "sweet" music was a "weak sister" as compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band enjoyed widespread popularity which crossed racial divides and

2769-537: The famous mystery play The Bat (with Mary Roberts Rinehart ), 1920 (filmed in 1926 as The Bat , in 1930 as The Bat Whispers , and in 1959 as The Bat ); Getting Gertie's Garter (with Wilson Collison ), 1921, starring Hazel Dawn (filmed in 1927 and 1945); The Demi-Virgin , 1921, also starring Dawn; The Alarm Clock , 1923, translated from the French; The Best People (with David Gray), 1924 (filmed in 1925 and as Fast and Loose in 1930 with Clara Bow );

2840-540: The fears of Western civilization towards jazz music, and the painting was later destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned. The European style of jazz entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France , which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it

2911-744: The germ; to Monte Carlo and the Riviera, where the jazz idea has been adopted as its own enfant-chéri; to Paris, which has its special versions of jazz; to London, which long has sworn to shake off the fever, but still is jazzing; and back again to Tinpan Alley, where each day, nay, each hour, adds some new inspiration that will slowly but surely meander along jazz latitude. As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, Mike Danzi and Lonnie Johnson , who visited Europe during and after World War I. It

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2982-403: The height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies. At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a way to preserve his and Jack Kriendler's illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police. Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a button

3053-458: The immense cultural shift the popularity of jazz music generated. Jazz aimed to cultivate empathy by initially challenging established norms and those who adhered to them, before captivating them with its ethereal and enchanting allure. It sought to blur the societal divides of race, class, and political allegiance, as illustrated in James Baldwin's renowned short story, "Sonny's Blues," where

3124-424: The improvisational solo to the forefront of a piece, replacing the original polyphonic ensemble style of New Orleans jazz. Jazz is generally characterized by swing and blue notes , call and response vocals , polyrhythms and improvisation . Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In

3195-495: The jazz greats of the era, including Chick Webb , Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and Benny Goodman. These women were persistent in striving to make their names known in the music industry and to lead the way for many more women artists to come. The birth of jazz is credited to African Americans. But it was modified to become socially acceptable to middle-class white Americans. Those critical of jazz saw it as music from people with no training or skill. White performers were used as

3266-510: The most famous of the 1920s blues singers. Chicago, meanwhile, was the main center developing the new " Hot Jazz ", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson . Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924. The same year, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band as featured soloist, leaving in 1925. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong

3337-558: The music of white American jazz singers. Other jazz vocalists include Bessie Smith and Florence Mills . In urban areas, such as Chicago and New York, African-American jazz was played on the radio more often than in the suburbs. Big-band jazz, like that of James Reese Europe and Fletcher Henderson in New York, attracted large radio audiences. Several "sweet jazz" dance orchestras also achieved national recognition in big band remote broadcasts including: Guy Lombardo 's Royal Canadian Orchestra, at New York City's Roosevelt Hotel (1929) and at

3408-525: The natives receive it dubiously, while the colonists seize upon it avidly; to the East Indies, where it holds sway in its elementary form — ragtime; to Egypt, where it sounds so curiously familiar and where it has set Cairo dance mad; to Palestine, where it is looked upon as an inevitable and necessary evil along with liberation; across the Mediterranean, where all ships and all shores have been inoculated with

3479-480: The older generation dismissed jazz, it became a vehicle for young women (and men) to challenge the values of their parents and grandparents. With women's suffrage —the right for women to vote—at its peak with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment on August 18, 1920, and the entrance of the free-spirited flapper, women began to take on a larger role in society and culture. With women now taking part in

3550-553: The press in 1924 that he was engaged to vaudeville dancer and choreographer Rosa Rolanda , Van Vechten confirmed in later years that it was a publicity stunt. Rolanda would later marry caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias . On the evening of July 1, 1928, at Juan-les-Pins on the French Riviera, Hopwood suffered a fatal heart attack while swimming. He was buried in Riverside Cemetery, Cleveland. His mother, Jule Hopwood, inherited

3621-411: The range of $ 1000 to $ 6000. The Summer Hopwood Contest was discontinued in 2017, but archives of winning Summer Hopwood manuscripts continue to be held in the Hopwood Room. When it ran, the contest was open only to students who took writing courses during spring and summer terms. Awards were given in the categories of drama or screenplay, nonfiction, short fiction, and poetry. Novels were not eligible for

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3692-612: The ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment , which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the latter stages of the Progressive Era . Formed as a result of the eighteenth amendment , speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could drink alcohol and relax or speakeasy. Jazz was played in these speakeasies as

3763-514: The rhythm section. Some researchers believe Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s. After the discovery of natural resources which boosted the country's economy during the late 19th century and early 20th century, South Africa became urbanised rapidly after its formation in 1910 with Black people leaving their native rural villages to go and work in

3834-512: The song-farce Naughty Cinderella , 1925, starring Irène Bordoni and The Garden of Eden in 1927, with Tallulah Bankhead in London and Miriam Hopkins in New York; (filmed in 1928 as The Garden of Eden ). In 1906, Hopwood was introduced to writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten . The two became close friends and were sometimes sexual partners. In the 1920s Hopwood had a tumultuous and abusive romantic relationship with fellow Cleveland-born playwright John Floyd. Although Hopwood announced to

3905-627: The term with the publication of his short story collection Tales of the Jazz Age . Jazz is a music genre that originated in the Black-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana , in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in blues and ragtime . New Orleans provided a cultural humus in which jazz could germinate because it was a port city with many cultures and beliefs intertwined. In New Orleans, people of different cultures and races often lived close together which allowed for cultural interaction which facilitated

3976-548: The terms of the will of Avery Hopwood, a prominent American dramatist and member of the class of 1905 of the University of Michigan, one-fifth of Mr. Hopwood's estate was given to the regents for the encouragement of creative work in writing. The first awards were made in 1931, and today, the Hopwood Program offers around $ 120,000 in prizes every year to aspiring writers at the University of Michigan. According to Nicholas Delbanco , UM English professor and former director of

4047-420: The transformative power of jazz unites two estranged brothers through the deeply emotive melodies played by Sonny. In Fitzgerald's works and beyond, jazz acted as a leveling influence, fostering a degree of equality within both literature and society. In 1925, The Great Gatsby epitomized this phase of Fitzgerald's career, capturing the romanticism and superficial charm of the "Jazz Age." This era started with

4118-469: The work force after the end of the First World War there were now many more possibilities for women in terms of social life and entertainment. Ideas such as equality and open sexuality were very popular during the time and women seemed to capitalize on these ideas during this period. The 1920s saw the emergence of many famous women musicians, including Bessie Smith. Bessie Smith gained attention because she

4189-533: Was a Chicago-based bandleader, session musician (piano), composer, singer, and arranger during the 1920s classic blues era. She and Lil Hardin Armstrong often are ranked as two of the best female jazz blues piano players of the period. Piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong was originally a member of King Oliver's band with Louis, and went on to play piano in her husband's band the Hot Five and then his next group called

4260-552: Was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music. Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders recruit white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson , vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In

4331-460: Was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as Jean Goldkette 's orchestra and Paul Whiteman 's orchestra. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned Gershwin 's Rhapsody in Blue , premiered by Whiteman's Orchestra. Writer F. Scott Fitzgerald opined that Rhapsody in Blue idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age. By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most popular bandleader in

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4402-459: Was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins ), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and

4473-503: Was a period in the 1920s and 1930s in which jazz music and dance styles gained worldwide popularity. The Jazz Age's cultural repercussions were primarily felt in the United States, the birthplace of jazz. Originating in New Orleans as mainly sourced from the culture of African Americans , jazz played a significant part in wider cultural changes in this period, and its influence on popular culture continued long afterwards. The Jazz Age

4544-484: Was concert music by amateurs, usually volunteers. Big band dance music is played by professionals and was featured in remote broadcasts from nightclubs, dance halls, and ballrooms. Musicologist Charles Hamm described three types of jazz music at the time: black music for black audiences, black music for white audiences, and white music for white audiences. Jazz artists like Louis Armstrong originally received very little airtime because most stations preferred to play

4615-429: Was described as the "sound factory." Radio made it possible for millions to hear music for free — especially people who never attended expensive, distant big city clubs. These broadcasts originated from clubs in leading centers such as New York, Chicago, Kansas City, and Los Angeles. There were two categories of live music on the radio: concert music and big band dance music. The concert music was known as "potter palm" and

4686-570: Was done. One strategy used by Frankie Yale and the Genna brothers gang (both involved in organized crime) was to give poor Italian Americans alcohol stills to make alcohol for them at $ 15 per day's work. Another strategy was to buy liquor from rumrunners. Racketeers would also buy closed breweries and distilleries and hire former employees to make alcohol. Another person famous for organized crime named Johnny Torrio partnered with two other mobsters and legitimate brewer Joseph Stenson to make illegal beer in

4757-596: Was established by Professor Roy W. Cowden , director of the Hopwood Awards from 1933 to 1952, who generously contributed a part of his library, which has grown through the addition of many volumes of contemporary literature. In addition to housing the winning manuscripts from the past years of the contests, the Hopwood Room has a lending library of 20th-century literature, a generous supply of noncirculating current periodicals, some reference books on how to get published, information on graduate and summer writing programs, and

4828-469: Was even praised by Louis Armstrong as one of his favorites. Some musicians, like Pops Foster , learned on homemade instruments. Urban radio stations played African-American jazz more frequently than suburban stations, due to the concentration of African Americans in urban areas such as New York and Chicago. Younger demographics popularized the black-originated dances such as the Charleston as part of

4899-609: Was not only a great singer but also an African-American woman as well as an icon in the LGBTQ+ community. Throughout her musical career she was unapologetically herself, expressing the struggles of the Black working class, addressing issues such as poverty, racism, and sexism alongside themes of love and female sexuality in her lyrics. She has grown through the ages to be one of the most well respected singers of all time and inspired later performers such as Billie Holiday . Lovie Austin (1887–1972)

4970-427: Was pushed, tongue blocks under shelves of liquor would drop, making the shelves drop back and liquor bottles fall down a chute, break, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An alarm also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door flush with the wall. It had a small, almost unnoticeable hole for a rod to be pushed in to activate

5041-554: Was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time. The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period. British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919 . In 1926, Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on

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