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162-489: Aventicum was the largest town and capital of Roman Switzerland (Helvetia or Civitas Helvetiorum). Its remains are beside the modern town of Avenches . The city was probably created ex nihilo in the early 1st century AD, as the capital of the recently conquered territory of the Helvetii , across the road that connected Italy to Britain, built under Claudius . Under the rule of Emperor Vespasian , who grew up there, Aventicum

324-496: A series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the republican order. With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws that would assign him the province of Cisalpine Gaul . Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, and on 28 November he won over two of Antony's legions with

486-821: A Roman force under Lucius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of Burdigala in 107 BC, but after the Roman victory over the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC, the Tigurini returned to settle in the Swiss Plateau. In 61 BC, the Helvetii, led by Orgetorix , decided to leave their lands and move to the West, burning their settlements behind them – twelve oppida , according to Caesar, and some 400 villages. They were decisively beaten by Caesar in

648-399: A bonus of 500 denarii . Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony had succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins. Mark Antony

810-545: A border area. Its defenses were strengthened, especially under Diocletian and Constantine , who rebuilt the roads and built castles ( castra ) alongside. Numerous fortifications were built along the Rhine border and further south, providing for a defense in depth . The border fortifications were completed by Valentinian I in 371, who established a chain of watchtowers along the Rhine from Lake Constance to Basel , with each tower no more than 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) away from

972-490: A coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead. After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. Gaul and the province of Hispania were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra , the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's son Caesarion . Lepidus

1134-558: A date that he would later commemorate as the beginning of his public career. Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum (14 April) and Mutina (21 April), forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul . Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies. These victories earned him his first acclamation as imperator , a title reserved for victorious commanders. The Senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of

1296-463: A fusion of Roman and local culture that characterized all aspects of society. Latin , the language of government and instruction, only gradually replaced the local Celtic dialects in everyday use. Local artworks and religious icons of the period exhibit influences of ornamental Celtic art , classical Greco-Roman art and even Oriental styles from the far reaches of the Empire. An important incentive for

1458-602: A major setback in Germania . Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system , established a standing army , established the Praetorian Guard as well as official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of

1620-567: A monopoly on political and martial power. The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain , as well as Illyria and Macedonia , two strategic regions with several legions. However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Octavian, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian. The Senate's control over some of

1782-503: A more thorough campaign by Drusus and the later emperor Tiberius brought Raetia – and thereby all of Switzerland – firmly under Roman control. The tropaeum alpium , built by Augustus in 7 BC to celebrate his conquest of the Alps, lists among the defeated peoples the tribes of Raetia and of the Valais, but not the Helvetii. It appears that they were absorbed peacefully into the Empire during

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1944-648: A new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory (which is now described as corresponding more or less to the Swiss plateau ) and establish supremacy over all of Gaul. They marched from their villages, but were stalled by Julius Caesar on the banks of the Rhône . The Helvetii then marched around and across the Jura Mountains , to an area near the Aeduan oppidum Bibracte . There Caesar caught up and defeated

2106-429: A new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g., Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius, Aemilianus for one who had been an Aemilius, etc. see Roman naming conventions for adoptions ). However, though some of his contemporaries did, there is no evidence that Octavian officially used the name Octavianus , as it would have made his adoptive origins too obvious. Historians usually refer to

2268-980: A new will with the Vestal Virgins , naming Octavian as the prime beneficiary. Octavian was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia , Illyria , when Julius Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security. Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law and so had adopted Octavian, his grand-nephew, in his will, making him his primary heir. Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander . This form of slander

2430-481: A pair of magistrates, the duoviri , elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum . The 100 members of this council, which corresponded to the Roman Senate , were selected by the duomviri among former officials or priests according to their wealth, and held office for life. Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also the civitates , or capitals, of

2592-486: A political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia , where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC. Lucius and his army were spared because of his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon . Octavian showed no mercy, however, for

2754-472: A rebellious band of slaves which occurred a few years after his birth. Suetonius wrote: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town long ago called Octavius, but an altar was shown there besides, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..." Due to

2916-539: A renegade general, following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, had established himself in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC. Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia , a sister (or daughter) of Pompeius's father-in-law Lucius Scribonius Libo . Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, Julia ,

3078-589: A restoration in 1978, but the name has remained. The Cigognier Temple was built as a massive and impressive temple and may have been the chief temple of the Imperial cult in the entire civitas Helvetiorum state. At the temple the Roman Empire, symbolized by the divine Emperor, would be worshipped by the citizens and inhabitants of the state. Supporting this theory, a gold bust of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius

3240-694: A safe and direct route from Gaul to Italy a priority. In 25 BC, an army under Aulus Terentius Varro Murena wiped out the Salassi in the Aosta Valley . At some time between 25 and 7 BC – either following the Aosta campaign or, more likely, in the course of the conquest of Raetia in 15 BC – a campaign also subjugated the Celtic tribes of the Valais and opened the Great St Bernard Pass. That conquest

3402-412: A second founding of Rome. The title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid. The Senate also confirmed his position as princeps senatus , which originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence, but in this case it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge. The honorific augustus

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3564-545: A show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power

3726-560: A tenth of those promised, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation. Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC. Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by General Agrippa at the naval battle of Naulochus . Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals

3888-528: A trade route was completed spanning from Italy to the recently conquered province of Britannia over the Gotthard Pass . This route passed through Aventicum allowing the city to expand. It later became part of Germania Superior and then part of the Diocletian province of Maxima Sequanorum . The former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were, by this time, as romanised as the rest of Gaul. In

4050-466: Is a simple wooden platform. The scaenae frons or background wall had three doors leading to the relatively small (10 by 7 metres (33 ft × 23 ft)) stage building ( postscaenium ) which is built projecting out behind the wall. The scaenae frons was built with a gap in the wall which showed the Cigognier Temple to the audience. The theatre was used for comedies and tragedies, but there

4212-406: Is also a "cult niche" at the foot of the audience's section with the stage forming an altar. This indicates that the theatre may have also been used for "dedicating plays" for religious ceremonies. The theatre is 106.25 metres (348.6 ft) wide and 66.4 metres (218 ft) deep. The orchestra area is 17.75 metres (58.2 ft) across and 21 metres (69 ft) deep. The capacity of the theatre

4374-469: Is from the Latin word augere (meaning "to increase") and can be translated as "illustrious one" or "sublime". It was a title of religious authority rather than political one, and it indicated that Octavian now approached divinity. His name of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus , the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome , which symbolized

4536-448: Is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself Princeps Civitatis ('First Citizen') juxtaposed with his adoption of the title Augustus . Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia , Pannonia , Noricum , and Raetia , expanding possessions in Africa , and completing the conquest of Hispania , but he suffered

4698-516: Is spoken to this day. The assassination of Aetius in 454 and the subsequent retreat of Roman forces to the south of the Alps marked the definitive end of Roman power in Switzerland, and the beginning of the transition to the Middle Ages . Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius ; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian ( Latin : Octavianus ),

4860-463: Is the largest temple in Aventicum. The outer dimensions were 111.58 by 118.80 metres (366.1 ft × 389.8 ft). The temple was 42.17 by 27.36 metres (138.4 ft × 89.8 ft), the height of the roof peak was 23.1 metres (76 ft) of which 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) is the height of the podium. The hall for the seating area was 64 by 83.35 metres (210.0 ft × 273.5 ft) and

5022-417: The aerarium Saturni , the public treasury. According to historian H. H. Scullard , however, Octavian's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised." The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal

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5184-735: The Allobroges around Geneva came under Roman sway by 121 BC and was incorporated into the province of Gallia Narbonensis before the Gallic Wars (58–51 BC). In around 110 BC, two Helvetic tribes under Divico – the Tigurini and the Tougeni , sometimes identified with the Teutons – joined the wandering Germanic Cimbri on a march to the West. In the course of the Cimbrian War they defeated

5346-799: The Allobroges around Geneva . South of the Swiss plateau were the Nantuates , Seduni and Veragri in the Valais , the Lepontii in the Ticino , and the Raetians controlled the Grisons as well as large areas around it. The first part of what is now Switzerland to fall to Rome was the southern Ticino , annexed after the Roman victory over the Insubres in 222 BC. The territory of

5508-450: The Battle of Bibracte in 58 BC. After their surrender, Caesar sent the Helvetii home, according them the status of foederati or Roman allies, but not yet (as has previously been believed) fully subjugating them to Roman sovereignty. Caesar's policy aimed at controlling the territory west of the Jura and Rhine , as well as at blocking the potential incursion routes from the East along

5670-638: The Crisis of the Third Century . Octavian was born into an equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia . His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC , and Octavian was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir; as a result, he inherited Caesar's name, estate, and the loyalty of his legions. He, Mark Antony , and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat

5832-499: The Helvetii , in the Gallic Wars in 58 BC. Under the Pax Romana , the area was smoothly integrated into the prospering Empire, and its population assimilated into the wider Gallo-Roman culture by the 2nd century AD, as the Romans enlisted the native aristocracy to engage in local government, built a network of roads connecting their newly established colonial cities and divided up

5994-472: The Peloponnese , and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC. The territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC. One of Pompeius's naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, so an agreement

6156-555: The Ptolemaic queen of Egypt , killed themselves during Octavian's invasion of Egypt, which then became a Roman province . After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate , the executive magistrates and the legislative assemblies , yet he maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as commander-in-chief , tribune and censor . A similar ambiguity

6318-539: The Sabine country near Reate. His father, Titus Flavius Sabinus , was a banker on a small scale in Aventicum, where Vespasian lived for some time. About two years after Vespasian was declared emperor, he raised Aventicum to the status of a colonia , granting exceptional civic status. A colonia was a town that was a specific residential location for legionaries who upon retirement were granted land and became citizens. This encouraged land development and stability and not least

6480-490: The cella is nearly square instead of a more rectangular shape. The Temple is raised above the ground on a podium. The cella was surrounded by pillars and the entrance was crowned with a pediment . Inside the temple there was an altar, a fountain and four pillars that supported a canopy over a statue. The temple was, most likely, dedicated to the Gallo-Roman god Mercurius Cissonius , a syncretic combination of Mercury and

6642-498: The 1st century AD Aventicum and the Helvetii land was incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica . Tacitus, writing about 69 AD, speaks of the Helvetians as originally a Gallic people, renowned for their valour and exploits in war, and he designates Aventicum Caput gentis , or capital of Helvetia. It acquired this title most probably on account of its comparatively advanced state of civilization and its conspicuous position on

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6804-524: The 4th century the amphitheater was abandoned and much of the structure was removed and used as construction material. In the 11th century the Bishop of Lausanne had a tower house built over the east entrance, starting at about the 20th row of benches. This tower is now the home of the Roman Museum. The theatre was built during the early 2nd century in an area that was previously occupied by scattered houses. It

6966-558: The 4th century; they are found in Geneva , Chur and Saint-Maurice , known for the legend of the Theban Legion . The order and prosperity that the Pax Romana had brought to Switzerland ended, as elsewhere in the Empire, with the Crisis of the Third Century . In 260, when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, the emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight

7128-579: The Burgundian areas eventually became the French-speaking Romandie , while the people in the larger Eastern half – called la suisse alémanique in French – still speak variants of Alemannic German . Raetia maintained its Roman traditions longer than the rest of Switzerland, but most of it was eventually assimilated as well, leaving only a small territory where a Vulgar Latin dialect, Romansh ,

7290-452: The Celtic aristocracy who continued to hold their lands and their rank after the Roman conquest. Of the lower classes, much less is known, although there are inscriptions attesting to the existence of guilds ( collegia ) of boat skippers, doctors, teachers and traders, as well as to the existence of a trade in slaves . In the course of Romanization, the Celtic polytheism of the local tribes

7452-399: The East, Octavian in the West. The Italian Peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor , in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC. Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through

7614-601: The Forum) were located directly east of the Forum of Aventicum. They were built during the expansion to a colony, sometime after 77 AD. They were financed by a wealthy romanized Helvetii family known as the Camilli. Switzerland in the Roman era The territory of modern Switzerland was a part of the Roman Republic and Empire for a period of about six centuries, beginning with

7776-436: The Helvetii in the Battle of Bibracte . This resulted in the Helvetii's retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans. Following their surrender, the Helvetii became foederati , an allied civitas required to provide soldiers, but not granted Roman citizenship. The Helvetii likely lost their status as foederati six years later, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC,

7938-610: The Jura. The Raetians, described as savage warriors by Strabo , continued to launch incursions into the Swiss Plateau and also had to be contained. To that end, Caesar charged the Helvetii and the Rauraci with defending their territory and established two colonies of veterans – one, the Colonia Julia Equestris (now Nyon ) on the shores of Lake Geneva and the other through Lucius Munatius Plancus in northwestern Switzerland, preceding

8100-536: The Mediterranean Sea to the peninsula. Pompeius's own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy. Pompeius's control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius , "son of Neptune ". A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the Pact of Misenum ; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica , Sicily, and

8262-487: The Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces . Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least. On 13 January 27 BC, Octavian made

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8424-440: The Roman provinces helped maintain a republican facade for the autocratic principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability. On 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new title of augustus . Augustus

8586-628: The Romans founded Colonia Iulia Equestris at the site of the Helvetian settlement Noviodunum (modern Nyon ). This colony was most likely established as a means for controlling one of the two important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul , blocking passage through the Rhône valley and the Sundgau . During the following half century, the Helvetii would become increasingly romanized. During this time, there were two settlements near where Aventicum would be founded. The first

8748-473: The Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy. Marching into Rome, Octavian and Agrippa were elected as consuls by the Senate. Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among

8910-467: The Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity , or sacrosanctitas , in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome. Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces. On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already

9072-583: The Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt. In early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on

9234-648: The Senate's archenemy Mark Antony. Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy. Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania . By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each

9396-423: The South and East, Lake Geneva and the Rhône to the west and the Rhine to the north, was recognized as a contiguous territory by Julius Caesar . This area had been dominated by the La Tène culture since the 5th century BC, settled by a mostly Celtic population ( Gauls ), of which the Helvetii were the most numerous, but which also included the Rauraci in north-west Switzerland centered on Basel , and

9558-400: The area among the Roman provinces . Roman civilization began to retreat from Swiss territory when it became a border region again after the Crisis of the Third Century . Roman control weakened after 401 AD, but did not entirely disappear until the mid-5th century after which the area began to be occupied by Germanic peoples . The Swiss plateau , within the natural borders of the Alps to

9720-435: The arena floor, the upper walls, and the entrances were built of stone. The outer walls of the amphitheatre measured 98.85 by 85.94 metres (324.3 ft × 282.0 ft) and the arena floor was 51.63 by 38.40 metres (169.4 ft × 126.0 ft). The first amphitheatre could hold about 9,000 people. The second phase expanded the amphitheatre considerably. A total of 31 rows of stone seats were built, which increased

9882-456: The armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece. After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony branded Octavian as

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10044-403: The assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto dictators . The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC, and Antony was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and his wife Cleopatra ,

10206-409: The capacity to about 16,000. The walls were expanded and alcoves were added. On the east side a monumental main portal was built out of massive stone cubes. The expanded amphitheatre was (without the outer courtyard or the east main portal) 105.01 by 92.11 metres (344.5 ft × 302.2 ft), while the arena floor remained the same size. The outer walls were 18 metres (59 ft) high. During

10368-426: The cella, originally 10.8 by 9.4 metres (35 ft × 31 ft), and part of the podium, originally 20.2 by 20.4 metres (66 ft × 67 ft), are visible today. While the stairs leading up the podium are gone, the location of the altar and the fountain as well as the partially reconstructed canopy are also visible on the podium. The rear of the podium is on the north side of the Avenue Jomini. The rest of

10530-515: The central and western part of Switzerland, as described above, is well documented, nothing of substance is known about the political and administrative system in eastern Raetia . However, records of the time show that a great number of local nobles held political and religious offices in Raetia, indicating that the Romans successfully co-opted the local elite. Testaments of Roman culture such as baths, floor heating and imported goods (pottery, glass, religious icons and artworks) have been found in even

10692-405: The centre of the Roman town, and outside the walls a canal and roadway leading from the nearby lake, doubtless assisting in the transport of stone from the Jura by lake and canal, and cemeteries and aqueducts outside the line of the Roman walls. Pro Aventico is also responsible for the constant round of restoration of the buildings opened up in the early part of the 20th century, including sections of

10854-483: The city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son Tiberius , Livia's son and former husband of Augustus's only biological child, Julia . As a consequence of Roman customs , society, and personal preference, Augustus ( / ɔː ˈ ɡ ʌ s t ə s / aw- GUST -əs )

11016-572: The college of priests) but was ejected from the Triumvirate. His public career at an end, he effectively was exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy. The Roman dominions were divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius's army and navy. Octavian had

11178-452: The colonists of Aventicum"). Moreover, the Roman citizens of the entire territory established the cives Romani conventus Helvetici ("Association of Roman citizens in Helvetia"). The civitas (tribal community) of the Helvetii was similar to that of the Celtic tribes of the Valais , which were merged into a single civitas Vallensis probably around 40 AD, and given Forum Claudii Vallensium ( Martigny ) as their capital. Parts of

11340-642: The conquest. The principal Roman settlements in Switzerland were the cities of Iulia Equestris ( Nyon ), Aventicum ( Avenches ), Augusta Raurica ( Augst ) and Vindonissa ( Windisch ). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages ( vici ) established in the 1st to 3rd century AD, as well as hundreds of villas of varying sizes built in the western and central part of the Swiss Plateau . The known vici include: The colonies of Nyon and Augusta Raurica at first had little cultural influence beyond their immediate surroundings. After Roman military defeats in Germania in 12–9 BC and 6–9 AD,

11502-499: The consular legions to Decimus Brutus. In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony. In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa and also that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy. When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions. He encountered no military opposition in Rome and on 19 August 43 BC

11664-511: The crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavian was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavian mentions his father's equestrian family only briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War . His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia . His mother, Atia ,

11826-456: The culture of Roman Switzerland is illustrated by the imposing size and central location of the Roman temples in the cities, as well as by the great number of religious artifacts found by archaeologists. As everywhere in the Empire, the Imperial cult was practiced in Switzerland; it had a particularly prominent temple in the center of the forum of Nyon. The first clear testaments to Christian communities in Switzerland date after 313, when

11988-553: The death of emperor Nero in 68 AD. Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a civitas and enjoyed a certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops. In the civil war and Year of Four Emperors which followed Nero's death, the civitas Helvetiorum supported Galba ; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival, Vitellius . The Legio XXI Rapax , stationed in Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole

12150-438: The enticing offer of monetary gain. In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January. However, the province had earlier been assigned to Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus , one of Caesar's assassins, who now refused to yield to Antony. Antony besieged him at Mutina and rejected

12312-537: The exception of Antony's older son . Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium. After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire republic under an unofficial principate —but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting

12474-399: The extension of Roman culture. Previously, Aventicum had been the capital of a non-citizen nation. The increased prestige that being a colonia brought ushered in a golden age for Aventicum. During this time Aventicum was known as Pia Flavia Constans Emerita . The Alemanni sacked the city in the 280s, and neither Aventicum nor its hinterland recovered from both the impact of the attack and

12636-513: The fifth century saw the apparently non-violent takeover of western Switzerland by the Burgundians (placed there by Flavius Aetius in 443 as a shield against the invading Huns ) and of Northern and Central Switzerland by the Alamanni , a move not opposed by either absent or weakened Roman forces. These settlements established the most important cultural and linguistic division in modern Switzerland:

12798-710: The finds, the Musée Vespasien was opened in 1824. In 1838, it was taken over by the Canton of Vaud, renamed the Roman Museum, and installed in the tower of the Amphitheatre. In 1884, the association Pro Aventico was founded with a goal of discovering and preserving the ruins. Aventicum was a well-known location in the Grand Tour and J. M. W. Turner made a drawing of Avenches: the Roman Column,'Le Cicognier' in 1802, which shows

12960-551: The first century AD, except for their part in the conflicts of the Year of the Four Emperors , AD 69. The history of Switzerland under Roman rule was, from the Augustan period up until 260 AD, a time of exceptional peace and prosperity. The Pax Romana was made possible by the protection of well-defended and distant Imperial borders and a peaceful and smooth Romanization of

13122-639: The focus of the church had moved to Lausanne, Aventicum is only mentioned as an old ruined city though it had fallen into ruins previously. Over the following centuries it is mentioned but always as ruins. In 1710, Marquard Wild was the first to argue that Aveticum had been the capital of Helvetia, and not Antre as was formerly believed. In 1783–86 the Marquess of Northampton led an archaeological expedition to Aventicum and in 1788 he put his discoveries on display. His discoveries encouraged many treasure seekers to travel to Aventicum to search for artefacts. In response to

13284-453: The following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen. The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32 BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius. These defectors gave Octavian

13446-419: The following year. As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius's troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus's troops deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises of money. Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of pontifex maximus (head of

13608-435: The forces of Pompey , Caesar's late enemy, but Octavian fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front but was shipwrecked. After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed Caesar considerably. Velleius Paterculus reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage. When back in Rome, Caesar deposited

13770-408: The foundation of his political actions. To a large extent, the public was aware of the vast financial resources that Octavian commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to

13932-493: The frontier was moved back to the Rhine and guarded by eight legions, of which one, originally Legio XIII Gemina , was based in the permanent camp of Vindonissa ( Windisch ). Aventicum ( Avenches ) was likely the capital of the Helvetii since its founding at the beginning of the 1st century. In the 40s, it benefited from the traffic brought over the St Bernard pass over a street expanded by Claudius , and in 71 it acquired

14094-468: The funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against the Parthian Empire in the Middle East. This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east. A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against

14256-839: The funeral oration for his grandmother. From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the toga virilis ("toga of manhood") four years later and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC. The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix , built by Julius Caesar. According to Nicolaus of Damascus , Octavian wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa but gave way when his mother protested. In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania , where he planned to fight

14418-459: The gallic god Cissonius . The temple worships Mercury as the god of travellers and trade and being located on the main street through the city would have been visited by both. Its close proximity to the Cigognier Temple, the center of worship for the Imperial Cult, indicates that this temple was also an important one. The temple is partly restored. A section of the foundation of the south wall of

14580-494: The god of the Pennine Alps . As oriental religions grew more popular in the later Empire – unlike the traditional Roman cults, they promised rewards in the afterlife – they also percolated into Gaul. Artifacts related to the cults of gods such as Isis , Osiris , Serapis , Kybele , Serapios , Dionysos or Mithras have been found at the site of every Roman settlement in Switzerland. The great significance of religion in

14742-476: The information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony. Octavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule and designated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his queen. In late 32 BC,

14904-517: The larger Augusta Raurica founded by Augustus in around 6 AD. Caesar's attempt to open the Great St Bernard Pass for Roman traffic failed in 57 BC due to strong opposition by the local Veragri . Concerted and successful efforts to gain control over the Alpine region were undertaken by his successor, Augustus , as the rapid development of Lugdunum (Lyon) made the establishment of

15066-529: The largest site, the piles extend over an area of 460 square metres (5,000 sq ft) thus forming a large station or village. A great number of objects have been found buried in the mud amongst the piles, consisting of implements of stone and bone, such as hatchets, chisels, needles, awls, besides a vast quantity of the bones of animals. The pottery is a coarse, dark red kind of earthenware containing numerous grains of quartz, and there are 12 or 15 varieties. The Helvetii probably reached southern Germany around

15228-547: The legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation. In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in

15390-436: The local people to Romanize was the perspective of obtaining the various degrees of Roman citizenship and the rights conferred thereby, including the right to vote, to hold public office and to render military service. The hundreds of villae found in Switzerland, some very luxurious, attest to the existence of a wealthy and cultured upper class of landowners. Many villae belonged not to Roman immigrants, but to members of

15552-408: The local population. The Romans urbanized the territory with numerous settlements and built a network of high-quality Roman roads connecting them, allowing for the integration of Helvetia into the imperial economy. While the Roman presence was always strong in the Alps, where the crucial North-South connection had to be kept open, the Swiss plateau was not really Romanized until decades after

15714-481: The long axis. The eight pillared portico of the temple rose high above the north courtyard. The actual temple was built on a high podium with a neighbouring seating area hall, with three rows of seats. A wall surrounded the entire complex except toward the south which formed the outer courtyard. The wall had a gate that connected the temple to the Theatre and the new, main east–west road in the city. The Cigognier Temple

15876-568: The main route between Italy and Germany. It was also the centre of a network of well used military roads. Aventicum and Nyon ( Colonia Equestris ) located on the shores of Lake Geneva were the starting points for all mile-stones in Helvetia. During the first three-quarters of the 1st century AD, Aventicum became a center of the Imperial cult in the Civitas Helvetiorum. However, the Helvetii came into conflict once more with Rome shortly after

16038-416: The mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu ) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations. Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade . It was there that Antony's fleet faced

16200-450: The majority of Rome's legions. While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate. Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have

16362-409: The mass of allies loyal to Lucius. On 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius. Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others. This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius . Sextus Pompeius , the son of Pompey and still

16524-467: The modern Ticino belonged to the colony of Comum ( Como ), founded in the 1st century AD. On the local level, the basic administrative units were the vici , replacing the Helvetic pagi , or tribes, which were dissolved at the time of colonization. These villages enjoyed a certain autonomy and were governed by popularly elected magistrates ( magistri or curatores ). While the governmental system in

16686-502: The much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC. Antony and his remaining forces were spared by a last-ditch effort from Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby. A year later, Octavian defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide . Antony fell on his own sword and

16848-403: The new Caesar as "Octavian" during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir. Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy. After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium, Octavian demanded a portion of

17010-529: The new province of Raetia . The Valais was split from Raetia by Claudius in AD ;43 and merged with the province of Alpes Graiae to form a new province, Alpes Graiae et Poeninae . As for the Swiss plateau, its western and central part up to Ad Fines ( Pfyn ) was administratively part of the province of Belgica and for military purposes part of Germania Superior . Its eastern part belonged to Raetia. This division, established by Augustus in 22 BC,

17172-535: The next one. But even these efforts could not restore peace and order in Switzerland, and numerous settlements were abandoned as their inhabitants fled to more defensible places or to the South. Urban culture faded away as the cities of Nyon and Augusta Raurica were permanently abandoned during the 4th century, the stones of their ruins serving to fortify Geneva and Basel . Aventicum never recovered from its pillages: Ammianus Marcellinus noted in around 360 that "the city

17334-529: The non-Roman tribes of the Rauraci and Helvetii , respectively. In that capacity, the magistrates of Aventicum, as duoviri coloniae Helvetiorum , also governed the entire Helvetic population, which had the legal status of incolae (inhabitants) invested with the Latin Right . The rights of the Roman coloni , or colonists, were represented by a special authority, the curatores colonorum Aventicensum ("Heads of

17496-466: The old town behind. Archaeology benefited curiously from the First and Second World Wars when foreigners interned in Switzerland, and local unemployed, were engaged to excavate the main buildings of the Roman city and to renovate and open to the public the theatre, "Cigognier" and the gates and one tower of the wall. With the advent of the national highway scheme in the late 1960s a programme of rescue archaeology

17658-406: The pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept the messengers and detain a Roman detachment. Aulus Caecina Alienus , a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii at Mount Vocetius, killing and enslaving thousands. Aventicum was then besieged and quickly surrendered. The city

17820-423: The poorest Roman era dwellings, indicating that Romanization was effective at all levels of society. Roman public baths were found in all villages, temples with integrated theaters – showing animal or gladiatorial combat – in most. While the superimposition of Roman culture on the local population appears to have been unproblematic and thorough, the Celtic traditions did not disappear entirely, resulting in

17982-517: The proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother Paullus . On 1 January 42 BC, the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, divus Iulius . Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was divi filius , "Son of the Divine". Antony and Octavian then sent twenty-eight legions by sea to face

18144-609: The religion was officially tolerated with the Edict of Milan . It is however certain that, as in Gaul, the Christian faith had already had adherents for some time before 313. The first bishop in Switzerland was either Justinianus , bishop of the Rauricans, in 340 (his historicity is not certain) or Theodorus , bishop of Octodurus , in 381 or earlier. The first Christian religious buildings date to

18306-415: The resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the fighting. The Senate had no army to enforce their resolutions. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces. Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth." At

18468-459: The roof height was 19.50 metres (64.0 ft), also with a 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) podium. The outer courtyard was 15.14 by 104.58 metres (49.7 ft × 343.1 ft). The Roman Temple of the Grange-des-Dîmes dates from the end of the 1st or the early 2nd century. It was built on the site of an earlier 1st-century gallic chapel. The temple is built in a typical Roman fashion, however

18630-595: The same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla , little more than a year after their marriage. While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered three children with her. Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium . This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight because of their Caesarian cause, while

18792-453: The same. Antony refused. Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC, and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title " Queen of Kings " to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome. Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, and he opened

18954-461: The status of a Roman colony and of an allied city. This is believed to have been a favor of Vespasian for the city in which he had lived for a time, or a measure to better control the Helvetii after the events of 69 by implanting a colony of veterans in their midst. The Alps were first administered by a legatus pro praetore in Augusta Vindelicorum ( Augsburg ), then by the procurator of

19116-572: The step-by-step conquest of the area by Roman armies from the 2nd century BC and ending with the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. The mostly Celtic tribes of the area were subjugated by successive Roman campaigns aimed at control of the strategic routes from Italy across the Alps to the Rhine and into Gaul , most importantly by Julius Caesar 's defeat of the largest tribal group,

19278-419: The subsequent changes of the Roman frontier which no longer granted security to the area. By the collapse of Rome in the 5th century, this area was already fully under the control of Germanic tribes, whose dialects became the basis for Swiss German. In the 6th century some Christian life continued in the acropolis of the Roman town: the amphitheatre became a fortress as did the theatre. By the 7th century, however,

19440-406: The succeeding decades opened up much of the insulae – the rectangular street system of the focus of the Roman town. Much of the area within the walls was not a densely occupied city at all, but rather, like Rome itself, was occupied by "urban villas', large houses surrounded by substantial tracts of garden and small-holdings. The more recent work also uncovered a remarkable palace building, much of

19602-483: The summer, Octavian won the support of Caesarian veterans and also made common cause with those senators—many of whom were themselves former Caesarians—who perceived Antony as a threat to the state. After an abortive attempt by the veterans to reconcile Octavian and Antony, Antony's bellicose edicts against Brutus and Cassius alienated him from the moderate Caesarians in the Senate, who feared a renewed civil war. In September, Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in

19764-541: The temple site is covered by the Avenue, though the floor plan of the temple is laid out in stones embedded in the road. Based on reconstructions, many of the dimensions of the temple are known. The podium was 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) high, with a cella that was about 20 metres (66 ft) high and covered with a four sided roof. The cella is surrounded by a narrow colonnaded portico facade with pillars that are .51 metres (1.7 ft) in diameter, 4.5 metres (15 ft) high and

19926-417: The traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, or relocated. While the exact date of the founding of Aventicum is not exact, it was likely established during or shortly after Augustus' reign. By 5 AD there was a dock on the shore of Lake Murten, which is the first evidence of a settlement at Aventicum. A grave has also been discovered in the city that dates to 15 AD. During that time there

20088-417: The trusses above the pillars were 1.16 metres (3.8 ft) thick. The entrance to the temple was set off with 4 pillars (.89 metres (2.9 ft) in diameter). The main road through Aventicum ran from east to west. The east gate was built during the reign of Vespasian. The gate was built to protect and control the road before the city walls were built. The Baths (known as Thermen von En Perruet or Baths at

20250-416: The urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls. In addition, Octavian was granted imperium pro praetore (commanding power) which legalized his command of troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC). He assumed the fasces on 7 January,

20412-431: The usurper Ingenuus , allowing the warlike Alemanni to enter the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis. Only the Valais , shielded by mountains, escaped these predations. As the Empire's frontiers receded to the Rhine, Switzerland once again became

20574-553: The wall and the original Roman tower-raised and protected through its use as a mediaeval watch tower, and the northern gate. Near to the line of the Roman walls, and benefiting from reuse of stone from the walls is the small Romanesque church in Donatyre , which possesses excellent early 12th century fresco paintings. The Amphitheatre , as was common in the Roman Empire, was used for gladiator and animal combat as well as staged hunts. It served political, social and religious purposes and

20736-417: The walls. It appears that the temple wasn't part of the original plan of Aventicum and so it may have been added under the direction of Trajan. Trajan had served with the Roman army along the Rhine , and after his ascension to the throne may have had the temple built to represent his power over the northern reaches of the Empire. The temple was built with a wide inner courtyard with an avenue running along

20898-421: The year 111 BC and soon invaded Gaul. During their invasion of the Roman province Gallia Narbonensis , they defeated a Roman army under L. Cassius Longinus near Agendicum in 107 BC and killed the consul. They continued to march into Spain, Gaul, Noricum , and northern Italy. Suffering defeats in the year 102–101 BC the surviving Helvetii retreated across the Alps. In 58 BC, the nobleman Orgetorix instigated

21060-497: The years 455 to 581, is one of the few sources for the 6th-century Burgundians . Shortly after the Council of Macon , in 585, Marius moved the seat from Aventicum, due to the rapid decline of the city, to Lausanne . The area around Aventicum was occupied before the Romans founded the city. There have been numerous lake-dwellings discovered within the adjoining Lake Murten , with at least 16 stilt house settlements having been found. In

21222-414: Was a central feature of most Roman towns. As the capital city, the amphitheatre in Aventicum was quite large. It was built in two stages, first about 130 AD then expanded around 165 AD. The first amphitheatre was built when the hillside was terraced. The arena floor was laid out and flattened. This first structure had 24 rows of seats built mostly of wood rising up the hillside. The stairs, the wall around

21384-670: Was a consequence of the Augustan imperative of securing the Imperial borders. To effectively control the Alps as the shield of northern Italy, Rome needed to control both flanks of the mountain range. Thus it had to extend its power to the Rhine and Danube , thereby also opening a direct route to Germania and all of Central Europe. The last obstacle in this path were the Raetians. After a first expedition against them by Publius Silius Nerva in 16 BC,

21546-534: Was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution . Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic. The provinces ceded to Augustus for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul , Syria , Cilicia , Cyprus, and Egypt . Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over

21708-470: Was a small settlement built, in the north east corner of modern Avenches, in the Roman square style. However, this site can only be dated to the reign of Tiberius (14–37 AD). Aventicum would have grown in 16-17 AD as the Roman legion camp Vindonissa was built (today in Windisch, Aargau ). Aventicum was a major location on the Roman road from Lausanne to Vindonissa . During the reign of Claudius (41–54 AD),

21870-412: Was about 12,000 people, with over 50 rows for seating. It was entered through 11 vomitoria (covered entrances) which each had two arched passageways. At the bottom of the spectators seating there was a 1.6 metres (5.2 ft) wide box for the nobility. The name of the temple (Cigognier) comes from a stork 's nest that had occupied the top of a pillar since at least 1642. The nest was removed during

22032-459: Was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas. It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian 's reforms in the third century, when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of Sequania , Vienna , Raetia Prima , Liguria and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae . The colonies of Nyon, Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome. Most governmental powers were exercised by

22194-465: Was amassing political support, but Octavian still had the opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status. It is alleged that Antony refused to hand over the money due Octavian as Caesar's adopted heir, possibly on grounds that it would take time to disentangle it from state funds. During

22356-457: Was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul. Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , another leading Caesarian. In a meeting near Bononia in October 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate . Their powers were made official by the Senate on 27 November. This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years

22518-486: Was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome. Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental paramour ". In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do

22680-473: Was found hidden in drains on the site of the temple. Additionally, the temple was laid out in the same manner as the Temple of Peace in Rome. Finally, the temple was built near the Theatre, which also may have had a role in the worship of the Emperor. The temple was started in 98 AD, the first year of the reign of Emperor Trajan , according to dendrochronological analysis of the numerous oak posts that support

22842-446: Was inherited by all future emperors and became the de facto main title of the emperor. As a result, modern historians usually regard this event as the beginning of his reign as "emperor". Augustus himself appears to have reckoned his "reign" from 27 BC. Augustus styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius , "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and

23004-599: Was known by many names throughout his life: He was born in Rome on 23 September 63 BC. His paternal family was from the Volscian town of Velletri , approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) south-east of the city. He was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill , very close to the Roman Forum . In his childhood, he received the cognomen "Thurinus", possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over

23166-509: Was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead. Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land. There

23328-504: Was merged – syncretized – with the Roman religion . The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts. Thus Lugus was replaced by Mercury , Belenus by Apollo , Taranis by Jupiter and so forth, in a practice called interpretatio romana by Caesar , who pioneered it. Roman gods also acquired the names of local gods as epithets ; thus Mars was venerated as Mars Caturix , Mercury as Mercurius Cissonius and Jupiter as Jupiter Poeninus after

23490-523: Was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies. Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with. This claim

23652-432: Was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus . Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs. Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir

23814-510: Was nearly ordered destroyed by the Romans, but owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, "of well-known eloquence" the city was spared. During the Year of Four Emperors (69 AD) Vitellius, who nearly ordered Aventicum destroyed, was the third. The fourth, Vespasian, had a much more positive influence on Aventicum. While he was born in Falacrina , in

23976-484: Was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the former. There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions. There

24138-487: Was once very illustrious, as its half-ruined buildings attest." The Roman era of Switzerland is traditionally held to have ended in 401 AD, when Stilicho withdrew all troops from the Rhine and the Danube. However, it has been argued that the withdrawal was only temporary and partial, and that Roman control of these rivers was reestablished in 411–413 with the assistance of tribes moving south from Germania. In any case,

24300-526: Was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair. After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium , Octavian learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate. Upon his adoption, Octavian assumed his great-uncle's name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman citizens adopted into

24462-399: Was raised to the status of a colonia in 72 AD, whereupon it entered its golden age. The town wall was 5.6 km (3.5 mi) long but was impracticable for defensive purposes and was doubtless intended as a display of the status of the city. In the Christian era Aventicum was the seat of a bishopric. The most famous of its bishops was Marius Aventicensis . His terse chronicle, spanning

24624-482: Was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC. In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the Parthian Empire , desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC. In an agreement reached at Tarentum , Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only

24786-454: Was rebuilt and renovated numerous times, though details are unclear. In the last third of the 3rd century it was rebuilt as a fortified refuge and a moat was added. It was used for this purpose until the middle of the 4th century. The theatre is built in the style of a classical Roman theatre , but does have some Gallo-Roman modifications. Both the orchestra and the cavea (spectator seating) are nearly horseshoe shaped. The actual stage

24948-431: Was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies. Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs. Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed

25110-531: Was set up under the association Pro Aventico under the remarkably capable direction of Professor Hans Bogli, after whom the Roman museum has since been named. Early work uncovered the Forum and associated temple area including a possible "Capitolium". In 1985, during the construction of the A1 highway, further portions of the Roman town were discovered. In 1987 the road was moved to avoid the site. Further and extensive work over

25272-642: Was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after by poisoning, contrary to the popular belief that she was bitten by an asp . Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of the Greek philosopher Arius Didymus that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion killed while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with

25434-468: Was the oppidum on Mont Vully between Lake Murten and Lake Neuchatel , which was given up in the 1st century BC. The second was the Bois de Châtel, which was fortified in the second half of the 1st century BC. The Bois de Châtel would be destroyed early in the 1st century AD and the population moved to Aventicum. In the course of Augustus ’ reign (27 BC – 14 AD), Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of

25596-514: Was the founder of the Roman Empire . He reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The reign of Augustus initiated an imperial cult , as well as an era of imperial peace (the Pax Romana or Pax Augusta ) in which the Roman world was largely free of armed conflict. The Principate system of government was established during his reign and lasted until

25758-529: Was the niece of Julius Caesar. His father died in 59 BC when Octavian was four years old. His mother married a former governor of Syria , Lucius Marcius Philippus . Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavian. Because of this, Octavian was raised by his grandmother, Julia , the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavian delivered

25920-411: Was then legalised by law passed by the plebs , unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Pompey , Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus . The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions , in which between 130 and 300 senators and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives. This decree issued by the triumvirate

26082-444: Was unrivaled in the Roman Republic. Historian Werner Eck states: The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas , which he himself emphasized as

26244-624: Was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and this encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius , who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Claudia , the daughter of Fulvia (Antony's wife) and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher . He returned Claudia to her mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took

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