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45-555: Could be related to the Indo-European root *h₂ebōl, *h₂ebl ( apple ), meaning "place where apple-orchards originated" (read below). The ancient Abella , whose inhabited area partly coincided in Samnites and Roman times with the more eastern of the two nuclei of the current historic center, was important among the medium-small centers of Ancient Campania , even if surpassed in importance and size from nearby Nola . In pre-Roman period

90-535: A French Jesuit who spent most of his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the analogy between Sanskrit and European languages. According to current academic consensus, Jones's famous work of 1786 was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included Egyptian , Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi . In 1818, Danish linguist Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated

135-659: A PIE homeland, the Kurgan and Anatolian hypotheses are the ones most widely accepted, and also the ones most debated against each other. Following the publication of several studies on ancient DNA in 2015, Colin Renfrew, the original author and proponent of the Anatolian hypothesis, has accepted the reality of migrations of populations speaking one or several Indo-European languages from the Pontic steppe towards Northwestern Europe. The table lists

180-544: A conventional mark of reconstructed words, such as * wódr̥ , * ḱwn̥tós , or * tréyes ; these forms are the reconstructed ancestors of the modern English words water , hound , and three , respectively. No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the comparative method . For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English: piede and foot , padre and father , pesce and fish . Since there

225-453: A detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956 Apophonie gave a better understanding of Indo-European ablaut . From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The Kurgan hypothesis , first put forward in 1956 by Marija Gimbutas , has become

270-606: A language. From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by Verner's law , published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change. August Schleicher 's A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages (1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct

315-562: A pelo del terreno, appare tra le branche degli olmi carichi di viti, nero come uno scolo. Dentro, nel treno che corre mezzo vuoto, il gelo The Terra di Lavoro was originally a giustizierato ( justiciarship ) and then a province of the Kingdom of Sicily , later Kingdom of Naples . After the Congress of Vienna (1815) it became a department of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , and, after

360-519: A period shortly after the Second Punic War , and is not only curious on account of details concerning the municipal magistrates, but is one of the most important documents for study of the Oscan language. In the area of the "Santissimo" are imposing vaults of probably a public building perhaps related to the forum in the vicinity of the church of S. Pietro. In the territory, various funerary monuments of

405-457: A regular layout throughout the eastern half and the only well-preserved part, incorporated in the amphitheatre, is in concrete with an opus incertum facing, with irregular blocks of various sizes, dated after the second Punic war of the 2nd century BC. The town was destroyed by Sulla in the Social War in 87 BC and he then made it a colonia for his veterans. Proof of this is the division of

450-542: A thousand years. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis , the original homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Europe. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has provided insight into the pastoral culture and patriarchal religion of its speakers. As speakers of Proto-Indo-European became isolated from each other through the Indo-European migrations ,

495-422: Is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants ( p and f ) that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can infer that these languages stem from a common parent language . Detailed analysis suggests a system of sound laws to describe the phonetic and phonological changes from the hypothetical ancestral words to the modern ones. These laws have become so detailed and reliable as to support

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540-567: Is believed to have had an elaborate system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes (analogous to English child, child's, children, children's ) as well as ablaut (vowel alterations, as preserved in English sing, sang, sung, song ) and accent . PIE nominals and pronouns had a complex system of declension , and verbs similarly had a complex system of conjugation . The PIE phonology , particles , numerals , and copula are also well-reconstructed. Asterisks are used by linguists as

585-563: Is not possible. Forming an exception, Phrygian is sufficiently well-attested to allow proposals of a particularly close affiliation with Greek, and a Graeco-Phrygian branch of Indo-European is becoming increasingly accepted. Proto-Indo-European phonology has been reconstructed in some detail. Notable features of the most widely accepted (but not uncontroversial) reconstruction include: The vowels in commonly used notation are: Terra di Lavoro Terra di Lavoro ( Liburia in Latin )

630-476: Is the name of a historical region of Southern Italy . It corresponds roughly to the modern southern Lazio and northern Campania and upper north west and west border area of Molise regions of Italy. In Italian the name means "Land of Work", but in fact derives from the ancient Liburia , a territory north of Aversa which took its name from the ancient Italic tribe of the Leborini . With border changes over

675-424: Is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family . No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other proto-language , and it is the best understood of all proto-languages of its age. The majority of linguistic work during

720-498: The Liber de Coloniis Vespasian settled a number of his freedmen and dependants there, yet it appears, both from that treatise and from Pliny, that it had not then attained the rank of a colony , a dignity which we find it enjoying in the time of Trajan . It probably became such in the reign of that emperor. Virgil and Silius Italicus considered that its territory was not fertile in corn, but rich in fruit-trees ( maliferae Abellae ):

765-503: The Etruscan character of the city. From the 5th c. BC Abella was, like the rest of the region, under the Samnite hegemony and later assumed the character of a city, as evidenced by the remains of houses found north of the amphitheatre. The urban area (about half of Pompeii) occupied a slightly elevated area south of the river and was often affected by floods from the mountains. The walls have

810-549: The Indian subcontinent became aware of similarities between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages, and as early as 1653, Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn had published a proposal for a proto-language ("Scythian") for the following language families: Germanic , Romance , Greek , Baltic , Slavic , Celtic , and Iranian . In a memoir sent to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1767, Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux ,

855-576: The Neogrammarian hypothesis : the Indo-European sound laws apply without exception. William Jones , an Anglo-Welsh philologist and puisne judge in Bengal , caused an academic sensation when in 1786 he postulated the common ancestry of Sanskrit , Greek , Latin , Gothic , the Celtic languages , and Old Persian , but he was not the first to state such a hypothesis. In the 16th century, European visitors to

900-620: The unification of Italy (1860s), a province of the Regno d'Italia . The capital was Capua until 1818 and then Caserta . In the pre-Republican Italy, the Terra di Lavoro was one of the largest provinces: it comprised the current province of Caserta , the southern part of today's provinces of Latina and Frosinone , the countryside of Nola of the province of Naples , and the Sannio ( provinces of Benevento , Campobasso and Isernia ). The main cities in

945-471: The 19th century was devoted to the reconstruction of PIE and its daughter languages , and many of the modern techniques of linguistic reconstruction (such as the comparative method ) were developed as a result. PIE is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from approximately 4500 BCE to 2500 BCE during the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age , though estimates vary by more than

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990-623: The Nolan area and more precisely to the Terra di Lavoro . It was only after 1860 that the municipality of Avella was aggregated to the Province of Avellino , although its territory did not belong to ancient Irpinia . The modern town of Avella is situated in the plain near the foot of the Apennines; but the remains of the ancient city, still called Avella Vecchia , occupy a hill of considerable height, forming one of

1035-558: The North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic. Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a Paleo-Balkan language area, named for their occurrence in or in the vicinity of the Balkan peninsula . Most of the other languages of this area—including Illyrian , Thracian , and Dacian —do not appear to be members of any other subfamilies of PIE, but are so poorly attested that proper classification of them

1080-622: The Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe. Other theories include the Anatolian hypothesis , which posits that PIE spread out from Anatolia with agriculture beginning c. 7500–6000 BCE, the Armenian hypothesis , the Paleolithic continuity paradigm , and the indigenous Aryans theory. The last two of these theories are not regarded as credible within academia. Out of all the theories for

1125-517: The Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Kartvelian languages due to early language contact , as well as some morphological similarities—notably the Indo-European ablaut , which is remarkably similar to the root ablaut system reconstructible for Proto-Kartvelian. The Lusitanian language was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day Portugal and Spain . The Venetic and Liburnian languages known from

1170-489: The centuries, it was a province of the Kingdom of Sicily and of the Kingdom of Naples , then of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and finally of the Kingdom of Italy . It was finally suppressed and divided among various provinces with the royal legislative decree n. 1 January 2, 1927, during the fascist regime. Ormai è vicina la Terra di Lavoro, qualche branco di bufale, qualche mucchio di case tra piante di pomidoro, èdere e povere palanche. Ogni tanto un fiumicello,

1215-588: The common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833, he began publishing the Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend , Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and German . In 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what became known as Grimm's law as a general rule in his Deutsche Grammatik . Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of

1260-402: The destruction. Public buildings were built from the late Republican age and private ones were rebuilt in peripheral areas such as adjacent to the amphitheatre. Vegetable gardens took over instead of houses, indicationg a town without major economic activities beyond agriculture and livestock. The villae rusticae nearby were the centres of large estates ( latifundia ) managed using slaves. From

1305-577: The effects of hypothetical sounds which no longer exist in all languages documented prior to the excavation of cuneiform tablets in Anatolian. This theory was first proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure in 1879 on the basis of internal reconstruction only, and progressively won general acceptance after Jerzy Kuryłowicz 's discovery of consonantal reflexes of these reconstructed sounds in Hittite. Julius Pokorny 's Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave

1350-502: The land for the settlers ( centuriation ) in the flat part of the territory which is the continuation of that of the Nola area and of which some of the roads have been preserved. In fact, three decumani in the east-west direction and eight cardines in the north-south direction are recognisable, which delimited squares of 715 m on each side (centuriae) made up of one hundred parcels. The orthogonal urban plan seems to have been regularised after

1395-537: The late Republican age and of the first century of the empire, belonging to the Ordus family coming from villas in the hills and along the roads that came out of the city. An image of Lucius Sitrius Modestus has long been walled up on the facade of the church of S. Pietro dating to the Tiberian era. Evidence of a Christian cult building of a cemetery character are near Saint Paulinus of Nola , perhaps built or restored when he

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1440-1117: The late empire, the construction of stables on the podium began, which was then interrupted by the events of dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. Avella has a station on the Circumvesuviana line Naples Porta Nolana- Baiano . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Bunbury, Edward Herbert (1854). " Abella ". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography . Vol. 1. London: John Murray. pp. 2, 3. Proto-Indo-European language Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Proto-Indo-European ( PIE )

1485-654: The main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European. Slavic: Russian , Ukrainian , Belarusian , Polish , Czech , Slovak , Sorbian , Serbo-Croatian , Bulgarian , Slovenian , Macedonian , Kashubian , Rusyn Iranic: Persian , Pashto , Balochi , Kurdish , Zaza , Ossetian , Luri , Talyshi , Tati , Gilaki , Mazandarani , Semnani , Yaghnobi ; Nuristani Commonly proposed subgroups of Indo-European languages include Italo-Celtic , Graeco-Aryan , Graeco-Armenian , Graeco-Phrygian , Daco-Thracian , and Thraco-Illyrian . There are numerous lexical similarities between

1530-524: The most popular. It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the Yamnaya culture associated with the kurgans (burial mounds) on the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea. According to the theory, they were nomadic pastoralists who domesticated the horse , which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots. By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout

1575-500: The necropolis to the north-east (locality of S. Paolino and adjacent areas) and to the west of the ancient city (locality S. Nazzaro). The tombs are simple grave inhumations and often contained rich grave goods with local ceramics and imported vessels. Contrary to nearby Nola , where ceramics are prevalent, bucchero and imitations of Corinthian vases are prominent in this period, with the same shapes as found in Capua which seems to confirm

1620-501: The neighbourhood also abounded in filberts or hazelnuts of a very choice quality, which were called from thence nuces Avellanae . By antonomasia , the namesake in Italian came to define hazelnuts in general. In the late empire, Abella seems to have gradually dissolved as a city following invasions, such as that of Alaric I who destroyed Nola. As in ancient times, even during the Middle Ages Avella continued to remain linked to

1665-426: The proto-Indo-European language. By the early 1900s, Indo-Europeanists had developed well-defined descriptions of PIE which scholars still accept today. Later, the discovery of the Anatolian and Tocharian languages added to the corpus of descendant languages. A subtle new principle won wide acceptance: the laryngeal theory , which explained irregularities in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European phonology as

1710-418: The province of Frosinone was established and the Terra di Lavoro was abolished, probably by personal order by Benito Mussolini . Its comunes were annexed to the province of Rome , Naples , Benevento, Campobasso and, after 1934, to the province of Littoria (modern Latina). In 1945 the new province of Caserta was created, including comunes of the central Terra di Lavoro (including Aversa) previously part of

1755-530: The province were Capua , Caserta , Sessa Aurunca , Formia , Gaeta , Isola del Liri , Itri , Nola , Acerra , Sora , Aquino , Arpino and Roccasecca . The Pontine Islands were also part of the province. In 1863 the upper valley of the Volturno was separated to form the new province of Campobasso , while the comunes in the Valle Caudina became part of the provinces of Benevento and Avellino . In 1927

1800-580: The region was dominated by the Osci . An important ancient inscription in Oscan was found in Avella, the Cippus Abellanus , which records an agreement between Abella and Nola with regards to the use of land around a temple to Hercules that was situated on the border between the two municipalities. A considerable number of tombs from the "recent orientalising period " (650-545 BC approximately) have been found both in

1845-428: The regional dialects of Proto-Indo-European spoken by the various groups diverged, as each dialect underwent shifts in pronunciation (the Indo-European sound laws ), morphology, and vocabulary. Over many centuries, these dialects transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages. From there, further linguistic divergence led to the evolution of their current descendants, the modern Indo-European languages. PIE

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1890-708: The set of correspondences in his prize essay Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse ('Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language'), where he argued that Old Norse was related to the Germanic languages, and had even suggested a relation to the Baltic, Slavic, Greek, Latin and Romance languages. In 1816, Franz Bopp published On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit , in which he investigated

1935-466: The underfalls of the mountains, and command an extensive view of the plain beneath; hence Virgil's expression despectant moenia Abellae . The ruins at one time were extensive, including the vestiges of an amphitheatre, a temple, and other edifices, as well as a portion of the ancient walls. A long inscription in the Oscan language records a treaty between Abella and Nola. It dates (according to Mommsen ) from

1980-410: The walls and partly on a natural slope, only the southern part rests on large vaults, while the arena is below ground level. The two main vomitoria on the major axis of the ellipse (itinera magna) with side rooms, the podium that divided the curve from the arena, and the tuff seats are all well preserved. A schematic image of the building is found on the side of an honorary base from the imperial age. In

2025-502: Was bishop of Nola. Nearby is the Grotto of the Camerelle di Pianura, a Karst grotto. Medieval sights include the church of Santi Martiri Nazario e Celso , built in the 9th to 11th centuries The amphitheatre was built opus reticulatum of tuff perhaps not long after becoming a colonia . It roughly traces the dimensions of that of Pompeii . It was located on the south-eastern corner of

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