A regnal name , regnant name , or reign name is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they accede to the monarchy.
166-545: Muhi al-Din Muhammad (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the title Aurangzeb , and also by his regnal name Alamgir I , was the sixth Mughal emperor , reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his emperorship, Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent with territory spanning nearly the entirety of the Indian subcontinent . Aurangzeb and the Mughals belonged to
332-450: A faqir . In 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. It is reported that he mentioned his grief about this to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat . His rule in Gujarat was marked with religious disputes but he was rewarded for bringing stability. In 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of Balkh , replacing
498-466: A 5-stage division including both pre-Islamic (until the 11th century) and pre-Ottoman Islamic (between the 11th and 13th centuries). The 5-stage approach further divides modern literature into a transitional period from the 1850s to the 1920s and finally a modern period reaching into the present day. Throughout most of its history, Turkish literature has been rather sharply divided into two different traditions, neither of which exercised much influence upon
664-500: A Pope Peter II. Even though there is no specific prohibition against choosing the name Peter, bishops elected to the Papacy have refrained from doing so even if their own given name was Peter. This is because of a tradition that only Saint Peter should have that honor. In the 10th century John XIV used the regnal name John because his given name was Peter. While some antipopes did take the name Peter II, their claims are not recognized by
830-515: A Praenomen of Roman Emperors, Augustus and Caesar became a cognomen of theirs. Immediately after a new pope is elected, and accepts the election, he is asked by the Dean of the College of Cardinals , "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope chooses the name by which he will be known. The senior Cardinal Deacon, or Cardinal Protodeacon , then appears on the balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica to proclaim
996-503: A branch of the Timurid dynasty . He held administrative and military posts under his father Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ) and gained recognition as an accomplished military commander. Aurangzeb served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636–1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645–1647. He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648–1652 and continued expeditions into
1162-459: A companion to Dara Shukoh. In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana , which he did with ease. In 1638, Aurangzeb married Nawab Bai , later known as Rahmat al-Nisa. That same year, Aurangzeb dispatched an army to subdue the Portuguese coastal fortress of Daman , however his forces met stubborn resistance and were eventually repulsed at
1328-451: A complete ban on music. He sought to codify Hanafi law by the work of several hundred jurists, called Fatawa 'Alamgiri . It is possible the War of Succession and continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure impossible. He learnt that at Multan , Thatta , and particularly at Varanasi , the teachings of Hindu Brahmins attracted numerous Muslims. He ordered
1494-436: A consequence of his return. The Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. The area required grants were required from Malwa and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration. The situation caused ill-feeling between him and his father Shah Jahan who insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation. Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan to extend to
1660-564: A critical evaluation of primary sources, counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign. Ian Copland and others reiterate Iqtidar Alam Khan who notes that, overall, Aurangzeb built more temples than he destroyed. Aurangzeb received tribute from all over the Indian subcontinent , using this wealth to establish bases and fortifications in India, particularly in the Carnatic, Deccan, Bengal and Lahore. Regnal name The regnal name
1826-513: A great extent inseparable from the tradition of Turkish folk music . In contrast to the tradition of Turkish folk literature, Turkish written literature—prior to the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923—tended to embrace the influence of Persian and Arabic literature. To some extent, this can be seen as far back as the Seljuk period in the late 11th to early 14th centuries, where official business
SECTION 10
#17328515593261992-516: A gurudwara at Dehradun, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot , Umananda Temple of Guwahati and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples, among others. Numerous new temples were built, as well. Contemporary court-chronicles mention hundreds of temple which were demolished by Aurangzab or his chieftains, upon his order. In September 1669, he ordered the destruction of Vishvanath Temple at Varanasi, which was established by Raja Man Singh, whose grandson Jai Singh
2158-536: A hunt ( sığır ), at communal feasts following a hunt ( şölen ). Poetry was also sung at solemn times and elegy called sagu were recited at yuğ funerals and other commemorations of the dead. Of the long epics, only the Oğuzname has survived in its entirety. The Book of Dede Korkut may have had its origins in the poetry of the 10th century but remained an oral tradition until the 15th century. The earlier written works Kutadgu Bilig and Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk date to
2324-463: A late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain. Further unsuccessful military involvements followed, as Aurangzeb was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh . His efforts in 1649 and 1652 to dislodge the Safavids at Kandahar which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal control, both ended in failure as winter approached. The logistical problems of supplying an army at
2490-411: A military tax on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service, after an abatement for a span of hundred years, in what was critiqued by many Hindu rulers, family-members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court-officials. The specific amount varied with the socioeconomic status of a subject and tax-collection were often waived for regions hit by calamities; also, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped,
2656-620: A monarch (usually long-lived), or a succession of monarchs of the same name. This is customary; there is no formal or general rule. For example, the whole period during which a succession of four Georges ( George I , II , III , and IV ) of the Hanoverian dynasty reigned in Great Britain became known as the Georgian era . Conversely, although there were many Edwards, the Edwardian era always refers to
2822-611: A pope to be named after a Roman god. Mercurius subsequently decreed that he would be known as John II. Since the end of the tenth century the pope has customarily chosen a new name for himself during his Pontificate; however, until the 16th century some pontiffs used their baptismal names . The last pope to use his baptismal name was Pope Marcellus II in 1555, a choice that was even then quite exceptional. The names chosen by popes are not based on any system other than general honorifics. They have been based on immediate predecessors, mentors, political similarity, or even after family members—as
2988-505: A result of Chinese cultural and political influence, temple names and posthumous names were adopted by monarchs of Korea and Vietnam, whereas monarchs of Japan adopted only posthumous names. Since 140 BC, during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han , Chinese sovereigns often proclaimed era names ( 年號 ; nián hào ) for the purpose of identifying and numbering years. Prior to the Ming dynasty , it
3154-608: A result of the article " Edebiyyât ve Hukuk " (ادبيات و ﺣﻘﻮق; "Literature and Law"), translated from French and published in Servet-i Fünûn , the pressure of censorship was brought to bear and the magazine was closed down by the government of the Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II . Though it was closed for only six months, the group's writers each went their own way in the meantime, and the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement came to an end. In
3320-535: A result, is seen as having both positive aspects (it is a rosegarden, and thus analogous to the garden of Paradise) and negative aspects (it is a rosegarden full of thorns, and thus different from the garden of Paradise). As for the development of Divan poetry over the more than 500 years of its existence, that is—as the Ottomanist Walter G. Andrews points out—a study still in its infancy; clearly defined movements and periods have not yet been decided upon. Early in
3486-455: A series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. On 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shah Jahan. This was the first prominent execution of Aurangzeb based on accusations of being influenced by Hinduism, however some sources argue it
SECTION 20
#17328515593263652-524: A strong connection with Turkish classical music , with the poems of the Divan poets often being taken up to serve as song lyrics. Turkish folk literature is an oral tradition deeply rooted, in its form, in Central Asian nomadic traditions. However, in its themes, Turkish folk literature reflects the problems peculiar to a settled (or settling) people who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle. One example of this
3818-466: A televised interview just before his inauguration, he announced he would continue to use the name Willem-Alexander, saying "I spent 46 years of my life under the name Willem-Alexander, and specifically under the nickname of Alexander. I think it would be weird to discard that because I become king of the country." Furthermore, he said he did not consider himself "a mere number", adding that regnal numbers reminded him of Dutch cattle naming conventions. When
3984-904: A tradition of oral epics , such as the Book of Dede Korkut of the Oghuz Turks — ancestors of the modern Turkish people —and the Epic of Manas of the Kyrgyz people . Beginning with the victory of the Seljuks at the Battle of Manzikert in the late 11th century, the Oghuz Turks began to settle in Anatolia , and in addition to the earlier oral traditions there arose a written literary tradition issuing largely—in terms of themes, genres, and styles—from Arabic and Persian literature . For
4150-450: A variation of the French writer Théophile Gautier 's doctrine of " l'art pour l'art ", or "art for art's sake", the group was nonetheless opposed to the blanket importation of Western forms and styles, and essentially sought to create a recognizably Turkish literature. The Fecr-i Âtî group, however, never made a clear and unequivocal declaration of its goals and principles, and so lasted only
4316-526: A younger son, Murad Baksh , who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. The Mughal artillery and muskets were matched by the skirmishing skills of their opponents which led to a stalemate. Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war. It is recorded that during the battle against the Uzbeks during this campaign, Aurangzeb dismounted from his elephant ride to recite prayer to
4482-500: Is Turkish. What makes up our poetic canon is not gazel s and kasîde s, but rather kayabaşı s, üçleme s, and çöğür s , which some of our poets dislike, thinking them crude. But just let those with the ability exert the effort on this road [of change], and what powerful personalities will soon be born! At the same time as this call—which reveals something of a burgeoning national consciousness —was being made, new literary genres were being introduced into Ottoman literature, primarily
4648-567: Is compared to the last names of the said king's brothers and their heirs, named the Akenzuas after his father Akenzua II , and his uncles and their heirs, named the Ewekas after his grandfather Eweka II . In the case of the comparatively small number of Nigerian monarchs, such as Obi Nnaemeka Achebe of Onitsha , who do not make use of regnal names as a result of a variety of reasons, pre-coronation names are maintained during their reigns. Monarchies of
4814-574: Is considered by some to have been an Alevi, while the entire Turkish aşık / ozan tradition is permeated with the thought of the Bektashi Sufi order , which is itself a blending of Shi'a and Sufi concepts. The word aşık (literally, "lover") is in fact the term used for first-level members of the Bektashi order. Because the Turkish folk literature tradition extends in a more or less unbroken line from about
4980-406: Is debated and scholars have floated different proposals to classify the stages of Turkic literary development. One proposal divides Turkic literature into early literature (8th to 19th c.) and modern (19th to 21st c.). Other systems of classification have divided the literature into three periods either pre-Islamic/Islamic/modern or pre-Ottoman/Ottoman/modern. Yet another more complex approach suggests
5146-547: Is one of the most important figures in all of Turkish literature; Süleyman Çelebi (?–1422), who wrote a highly popular long poem called Vesîletü'n-Necât (وسيلة النجاة "The Means of Salvation", but more commonly known as the Mevlid ), concerning the birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ; Kaygusuz Abdal (1397–?), who is widely considered the founder of Alevi/Bektashi literature; and Pir Sultan Abdal (?–1560), whom many consider to be
Aurangzeb - Misplaced Pages Continue
5312-439: Is the series of folktales surrounding the figure of Keloğlan, a young boy beset with the difficulties of finding a wife, helping his mother to keep the family house intact, and dealing with the problems caused by his neighbors. Another example is the rather mysterious figure of Nasreddin , a trickster who often plays jokes, of a sort, on his neighbors. Nasreddin also reflects another significant change that had occurred between
5478-479: Is usually followed by a regnal number , written as a Roman numeral , to differentiate that monarch from others who have used the same name while ruling the same realm. In some cases, the monarch has more than one regnal name, but the regnal number is based on only one of those names, for example Charles X Gustav of Sweden . If a monarch reigns in more than one realm, they may carry different ordinals in each one, as some realms may have had different numbers of rulers of
5644-599: The Armenian Vartan Pasha (Hovsep Vartanian) using the Armenian script and for an Armenian audience was, according to Andreas Tietze , "the first genuine modern novel written and published in Turkey". The introduction of such new genres into Turkish literature can be seen as part of a trend towards Westernization that continues to be felt in Turkey to this day. Due to historically close ties with France—strengthened during
5810-564: The Book of Dede Korkut : many believe it to have arisen in Anatolia sometime between the 15th and 17th centuries; more reliable testimony, though, seems to indicate that the story is nearly as old as that of the Book of Dede Korkut , dating from around the dawn of the 11th century. Complicating matters somewhat is the fact that Köroğlu is also the name of a poet of the aşık / ozan tradition. The epic tradition in modern Turkish literature may be seen in
5976-567: The Chinese cultural sphere practiced naming taboo , wherein the personal names of the rulers were to be avoided. Monarchs could adopt or be honored with regnal names ( 尊號 ; zūn hào ) during their reign or after they had abdicated. Since the Shang dynasty , Chinese sovereigns could be honored with temple names ( 廟號 ; miào hào ) after their death, for the purpose of ancestor worship . Temple names consisted of two or three Chinese characters, with
6142-574: The Crimean War of 1854–1856—it was French literature that came to constitute the major Western influence on Turkish literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their equivalents in the Ottoman Empire: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during
6308-664: The Crown of Scotland . A legal case, MacCormick v. Lord Advocate (1953 SC 396), contested the right of the Queen to title herself Elizabeth II in Scotland, arguing that to do so would be a breach of the Act of Union . The case, however, was dismissed on the grounds that the pursuers had no title to sue the Crown, and also that the numbering of monarchs was part of the royal prerogative , and thus not governed by
6474-656: The Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin ( Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı ), published in 1936 by the poet Nâzım Hikmet Ran (1901–1963). This long poem – which concerns an Anatolian shaykh's rebellion against the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I — is a modern epic, yet draws upon the same independent-minded traditions of the Anatolian people as depicted in the Epic of Köroğlu . Many of the works of the 20th-century novelist Yaşar Kemal (1923–2015 ), such as
6640-578: The Ethiopian Empire , especially during the Solomonic dynasty , many Emperors would take a throne name, though this was not a general practice; a great number of rulers would remain known during their reign by their birth names. Yekuno Amlak , the founder of the Solomonic dynasty, took his father's name, Tasfa Iyasus, as his throne name. Yagbe'u Seyon , his son and heir, took the throne name Salomon after
6806-714: The House of Piast disappeared and the Lithuanian House of Jagiellon was elected in the figure of the High Duke Jogaila , this monarch took the name of Władysław II, in honour of the previous Polish king ( Władysław I the Elbow-high ) with this traditional name. Similarly, when the Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus I, was elected king in 1697, he took the name of Augustus II. His son Frederick Augustus II crowned in 1734, also took
Aurangzeb - Misplaced Pages Continue
6972-615: The Ottoman Army in 1517. The Fatimid caliphs adopted the Abbasid use of the laqab to assert their claims of authority. Turkish literature Turkish literature ( Turkish : Türk edebiyatı, Türk yazını ) comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Turkish language . The Ottoman form of Turkish , which forms the basis of much of the written corpus, was highly influenced by Persian and Arabic literature , and used
7138-567: The Ottoman Turkish alphabet . The history of the broader Turkic literature spans a period of nearly 1,300 years. The oldest extant records of written Turkic are the Orhon inscriptions , found in the Orhon River valley in central Mongolia and dating to the 7th century. Subsequent to this period, between the 9th and 11th centuries, there arose among the nomadic Turkic peoples of Central Asia
7304-623: The Umayyad dynasty , used the laqab as-Saffah ("the Blood-Shedder"). This name carried a messianic association, a theme that would be continued by as-Saffah's successors. The use of regnal names among the caliphs lasted throughout the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, until the institution was deposed after the defeat of the Mamluk Sultanate and the capture of Caliph al-Mutawakkil III by
7470-461: The abdication crisis , Prince Albert, Duke of York, assumed the throne. His full name was Albert Frederick Arthur George, but he became King George VI rather than "King Albert". When John, Earl of Carrick ascended the throne in 1390, it was deemed imprudent for him to take the regnal name of "John II", due to the turbulent reigns of recent kings named John ( John Balliol , John of England , and John II of France ). Furthermore, royal propaganda of
7636-557: The aşık / ozan tradition in the 19th century, it experienced a significant revival in the 20th century thanks to such outstanding figures as Aşık Veysel Şatıroğlu (1894–1973), Aşık Mahzuni Şerif (1938–2002), Neşet Ertaş (1938–2012), and many others. The explicitly religious folk tradition of tekke literature shared a similar basis with the aşık / ozan tradition in that the poems were generally intended to be sung, generally in religious gatherings, making them somewhat akin to Western hymns (Turkish ilahi ). One major difference from
7802-425: The aşık / ozan tradition, however, is that—from the very beginning—the poems of the tekke tradition were written down. This was because they were produced by revered religious figures in the literate environment of the tekke , as opposed to the milieu of the aşık / ozan tradition, where the majority could not read or write. The major figures in the tradition of tekke literature are: Yunus Emre (1240?–1320?), who
7968-480: The heir apparent , Henry, died, the prince's name was changed to Sancho, one with a more established royal tradition in the other Iberian monarchies (Navarre, Castile and Aragon). Though most monarchs of the United Kingdom have used their first baptismal name as their regnal name, on three occasions monarchs have chosen a different name. First, Queen Victoria had been christened Alexandrina Victoria, but took
8134-507: The mesnevî , a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry ; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leylî vü Mecnun (ليلى و مجنون) of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk (حسن و عشق; "Beauty and Love") of Şeyh Gâlib. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose never managed to develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose
8300-552: The reasons for his choice of name during his first General Audience in St. Peter's Square, on 27 April 2005. On that occasion, he said that he wanted to remember " Pope Benedict XV , that courageous prophet of peace, who guided the Church through turbulent times of war", and also " Saint Benedict of Nursia , co-patron of Europe, whose life evokes the Christian roots of Europe". There has never been
8466-493: The subahdars of these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims. Aurangzeb also ordered subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims. The executions of the antinomian Sufi mystic Sarmad Kashani and the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur bear testimony to Aurangzeb's religious policy; the former was beheaded on multiple accounts of heresy, the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's forced conversions . Aurangzeb had also banned
SECTION 50
#17328515593268632-476: The 10th or 11th century to today, it is perhaps best to consider the tradition from the perspective of genre. There are three basic genres in the tradition: epic; folk poetry; and folklore. The Turkish epic has its roots in the Central Asian epic tradition that gave rise to the Book of Dede Korkut ; written in the Azerbaijani language – and recognizably similar to modern Istanbul Turkish – the form developed from
8798-436: The 13th century with such important writers as Yunus Emre, Sultan Veled, and Şeyyâd Hamza —was given a great boost when, on 13 May 1277, Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey declared Turkish the official state language of Anatolia's powerful Karamanid state; subsequently, many of the tradition's greatest poets would continue to emerge from this region. There are, broadly speaking, two traditions (or schools) of Turkish folk poetry: Much of
8964-504: The 16th to the 18th centuries—came to display a unique balance of Persian and Turkish elements. Although Turkish poets ( Ottoman and Chagatay ) had been inspired and influenced by classical Persian poetry, it would be a superficial judgment to consider the former as blind imitators of the latter, as is often done. A limited vocabulary and common technique, and the same world of imagery and subject matter based mainly on Islamic sources, were shared by all poets of Islamic literature. Despite
9130-599: The 1955 novel Memed, My Hawk ( İnce Memed ), can be considered modern prose epics continuing this long tradition. The folk poetry tradition in Turkish literature, as indicated above, was strongly influenced by the Islamic Sufi and Shi'a traditions. Furthermore, as partly evidenced by the prevalence of the still existent aşık / ozan tradition, the dominant element in Turkish folk poetry has always been song. The development of folk poetry in Turkish—which began to emerge in
9296-512: The 24 February 1909 edition of the Servet-i Fünûn magazine, a gathering of young writers—soon to be known as the Fecr-i Âtî ("Dawn of the Future") group—released a manifesto in which they declared their opposition to the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement and their adherence to the credo, " Sanat şahsî ve muhteremdir " (صنعت شخصى و محترمدر; "Art is personal and sacred"). Though this credo was little more than
9462-501: The Act of Union. The Roman Emperors usually had the titles of "Imperator Caesar Augustus" in their names (which made these regnal names). Caesar came from the cognomen of Gaius Julius Caesar , Imperator meant Commander and Augustus meant venerable or majestic. The name usually went in two ways, Imperator ( Praenomen , Nomen and Cognomen ) Caesar Augustus or Imperator Caesar (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Augustus. Also, Imperator became
9628-567: The Anatolian tradition. The Book of Dede Korkut was the primary element of the Azerbaijani–Turkish epic tradition in the Caucasus and Anatolia for several centuries. Concurrent to the Book of Dede Korkut was the so-called Epic of Köroğlu , which concerns the adventures of Rüşen Ali ("Köroğlu", or "son of the blind man") as he exacted revenge for the blinding of his father. The origins of this epic are somewhat more mysterious than those of
9794-732: The Deccan the zabt revenue system used in northern India. Murshid Quli Khan organised a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment on what it produced. To increase revenue, Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation infrastructure. This led the Deccan region to return to prosperity. Aurangzeb proposed to resolve financial difficulties by attacking the dynastic occupants of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis ) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis ). This proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands. Aurangzeb advanced against
9960-427: The Deccan. After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, the two brothers having agreed to partition
10126-457: The French Parnassian movement and the so-called " Decadent " poets. The group's prose writers, on the other hand—particularly Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil (1867–1945)—were primarily influenced by Realism, although the writer Mehmed Rauf (1875–1931) did write the first Turkish example of a psychological novel , 1901's Eylül (ايلول; "September"). The language of the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement remained strongly influenced by Ottoman Turkish. In 1901, as
SECTION 60
#173285155932610292-412: The Holy Roman Church [surname], who conferred upon himself the name [papal name]. During the first centuries of the church, priests elected bishop of Rome continued to use their baptismal names after their elections. The custom of choosing a new name began in AD 533 with the election of Mercurius . Mercurius had been named after the Roman god Mercury , and decided that it would not be appropriate for
10458-418: The Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess Dilras Banu , posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani. She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite. He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, Hira Bai , whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, Udaipuri Mahal . The latter had formerly been
10624-407: The Persian concept of kinship, the Farr-i-Aizadi, and based his rule on the Quranic concept of kingship. Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of Akbar , although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism, and Aurangzeb took the change still further. Though the approach to faith of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan was more syncretic than Babur , the founder of
10790-422: The Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery "), Realism (هﻨﻮز اون يدى يشکده Henüz On Yedi Yaşında , 1881; " Just Seventeen Years Old "), and Naturalism (مشاهدات Müşâhedât , 1891; " Observations "). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structure . Most of
10956-513: The Scottish or the English number, whichever was higher; this convention fit the pattern of prior reigns since the Acts of Union 1707 , all subsequent monarchs either having higher regnal numbers in England (namely William IV , Edward VII , and Edward VIII ) or had names not used before the Union (George and Victoria). New Royal Mail post boxes in Scotland bearing the cypher E II R , were vandalised, after which, to avoid further problems, post boxes and Royal Mail vehicles in Scotland bore only
11122-417: The Sultan of Bijapur and besieged Bidar . The Kiladar (governor or captain) of the fortified city, Sidi Marjan, was mortally wounded when a gunpowder magazine exploded. After twenty-seven days of fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals and Aurangzeb continued his advance. Aurangzeb suspected Dara had exerted influence on his father. He believed that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, and
11288-451: The Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements that became paramount. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namık Kemal (1840–1888) also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (انتباه; "Awakening"), while
11454-411: The Turkish folk literature tradition of Anatolia, away from the capital Constantinople , came to be seen as an ideal. Accordingly, many of the reformists called for written literature to turn away from the Divan tradition and towards the folk tradition; this call for change can be seen, for example, in a famous statement by the poet and reformist Ziya Pasha (1829–1880): Our language is not Ottoman; it
11620-473: The Turkish folk tradition and in Divan poetry). Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb ) and opposition (تضاد tezâd )—were more or less prescribed. Examples of prevalent symbols that, to some extent, oppose one another include, among others: As
11786-424: The adding of ordinals to them or the allowing of more than a generation to pass before their subsequent usage). An example of this can be found in the kingdom of Benin , where the throne name of Erediauwa I became the surname of all of his immediate family in the Eweka royal house of the state, thus nominally tying them and their descendants to the era of his reign. This is especially obvious when their branch's name
11952-538: The advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power. Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of Ahmednagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III , the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought
12118-509: The biblical figure. Amda Seyon took the throne name Gebre Mesqel, "slave of the cross "; Tewodros I was Walda Ambasa, "son of the lion"; Sarwe Iyasus was Mehreka Nañ "distributor of your [the Lord 's] mercy"; etc. Tafari Makonnen, the last sovereign Emperor of Ethiopia, took as his throne name Haile Selassie , meaning "Power of the Trinity ". In the various extant traditional states of Nigeria ,
12284-619: The celebration of the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz along with other un-Islamic ceremonies, and encouraged conversions to Islam; instances of persecution against particular Muslim factions were also reported. Yohanan Friedmann has reported that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of Ahmad Sirhindi inspired the religious orthodoxy policy of Aurangzeb. Shortly after coming to power, Aurangzeb remitted more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his subjects. In 1679, Aurangzeb chose to re-impose jizya ,
12450-508: The challengers were taking advantage of the situation. Shah Shuja in Bengal , where he had been governor since 1637 crowned himself King at RajMahal. He brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara Shukoh, and Raja Jai Singh. Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in
12616-435: The constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. A brief example is the following line of verse, or mısra (مصراع), by the 18th-century judge and poet Hayatî Efendi: Here, the nightingale is only implied (as being the poet/lover), while the rose, or beloved, is shown to be capable of inflicting pain with its thorns (خار hâr ). The world, as
12782-570: The days when the Turkish people were nomadic and the days when they had largely become settled in Anatolia; namely, Nasreddin is a Muslim Imam . The Turkic peoples had first become Islamized sometime around the 9th or 10th century, as is evidenced from the clear Islamic influence on the 11th century Karakhanid work the Kutadgu Bilig (" Wisdom of Royal Glory "), written by Yusuf Has Hajib . The religion henceforth came to exercise an enormous influence on Turkish society and literature, particularly
12948-724: The dynasty, the Oba Adeniji Adele II . This distinction notwithstanding, both groups of dynasts (as well as a number of other ones that do not have the name Adele as an official surname, such as that of the Oloye Adekunle Ojora , a prominent nobleman of royal descent) are part of what is known as the Adele Ajosun Ruling House of Lagos. Beyond that which is described above, regnal names also serve in Nigeria and indeed in much of Africa as chronological markers in much
13114-657: The earlier queen retroactively refer to her as Elizabeth I. However, Tsar Paul I of Russia , King Umberto I of Italy , King Juan Carlos I of Spain , Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia and Pope John Paul I all used the ordinal I (first) during their reigns. In spoken English, such names are pronounced as "Elizabeth the First", "George the Sixth", etc. In some countries in Asia, monarchs took or take era names . While era names as such are not used in many monarchies, sometimes eras are named after
13280-490: The earliest verses attributed to Uyghur Turkic writers are only available in Chinese language translations. During the era of oral poetry , the earliest Turkic verses were intended as songs and their recitation a part of the community's social life and entertainment. For example, in the shamanistic and animistic culture of the pre-Islamic Turkic peoples verses of poetry were performed at religious gatherings in ceremonies before
13446-449: The elephant was documented in Persian and Urdu verses. Aurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent to Bundelkhand with the intent of subduing the rebellious ruler of Orchha , Jhujhar Singh , who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took
13612-489: The emboldened Aurangzeb's advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances in order but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. When Dara's disparate, hastily concocted army clashed with Aurangzeb's well-disciplined, battle-hardened force at the battle of Samugarh in late May, neither Dara's men nor his generalship were any match for Aurangzeb. Dara had also become over-confident in his own abilities and, by ignoring advice not to lead in battle while his father
13778-475: The empire once they had gained control of it. The two armies clashed at Dharmat in April 1658, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Shuja was chased through Bihar . The victory of Aurangzeb proved this to be a poor decision by Dara Shikoh, who now had a defeated force on one front and a successful force unnecessarily pre-occupied on another. Realising that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist
13944-539: The empire, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious. His emphasis on sharia competed, or was directly in conflict, with his insistence that zawabit or secular decrees could supersede sharia. The chief qazi refusing to crown him in 1659, Aurangzeb had a political need to present himself as a "defender of the sharia" due to popular opposition to his actions against his father and brothers. Despite claims of sweeping edicts and policies, contradictory accounts exist. Historian Katherine Brown has argued that Aurangzeb never imposed
14110-677: The end of a long siege. At some point, Aurangzeb married Aurangabadi Mahal , who was a Circassian or Georgian . In 1644, Aurangzeb's sister, Jahanara , suffered from burns when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra . This event precipitated a family crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately but rather three weeks later. Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects. Shah Jahan
14276-506: The ensuing war of succession to the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb and his brother were consequently reunited with Shah Jahan in Agra . As a Mughal prince, Aurangzeb received an education covering subjects like combat, military strategy, and administration. His curriculum also included areas like Islamic studies, Turkic and Persian literature . Aurangzeb grew up fluent in the Hindustani language . He
14442-428: The extremity of the empire, combined with the poor quality of armaments and the intransigence of the opposition have been cited by John Richards as the reasons for failure. A third attempt in 1653, led by Dara Shikoh, met with the same outcome. Aurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shukoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangbad's two jagirs (land grants) were moved there as
14608-409: The fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology." Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at l' École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales , explains that "The loyalties of [officials and their armed contingents] seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of
14774-420: The family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides." Muslims and Hindus did not divide along religious lines in their support for one pretender or the other nor, according to Chandra, is there much evidence to support the belief that Jahanara and other members of the royal family were split in their support. Jahanara, certainly, interceded at various times on behalf of all of
14940-547: The fight had ended fatally for me it would not have been a matter of shame. Death drops the curtain even on emperors; it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did! Historians have interpreted this as an unjust slur against his brothers. Shuja had also faced the elephant and wounded it with his spear. Dara had been too far away to come to their assistance. Three days later Aurangzeb turned fifteen. Shah Jahan weighed him and presented him with his weight in gold along with other presents worth Rs. 200,000. His bravery against
15106-414: The first pope to use two names for his regnal name when he took the name John Paul I , including the "I". He took the "John Paul" name to honor both John XXIII and Paul VI . With the unexpected death of John Paul I a little over a month later, Karol Wojtyła took the name John Paul II to honor his immediate predecessor. Antipopes also have regnal names, and also use the ordinal to show their position in
15272-501: The forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers. With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim and accused him of poisoning the Mughal Grand Vizier Saadullah Khan . After
15438-453: The governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the battle of Khajwa , where Shah Shuja and his chain-mail armoured war elephants were routed by
15604-465: The heavily mystically oriented Sufi and Shi'a varieties of Islam. The Sufi influence, for instance, can be seen clearly not only in the tales concerning Nasreddin but also in the works of Yunus Emre , a towering figure in Turkish literature and a poet who lived at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century, probably in the Karamanid state in south-central Anatolia. The Shi'a influence, on
15770-582: The history of the tradition, the Persian influence was very strong, but this was mitigated somewhat through the influence of poets such as the Azerbaijani Nesîmî (?–1417?) and the Uzbek Ali Şîr Nevâî (1441–1501), both of whom offered strong arguments for the poetic status of the Turkic languages as against the much-venerated Persian. Partly as a result of such arguments, Divan poetry in its strongest period—from
15936-412: The influence of Persian and Arabic literature, and consequently of those literatures' respective languages. In folk poetry—which is by far the tradition's dominant genre—this basic fact led to two major consequences in terms of poetic style: Furthermore, Turkish folk poetry has always had an intimate connection with song—most of the poetry was, in fact, expressly composed so as to be sung—and so became to
16102-407: The journalist İbrahim Şinasi (1826–1871) is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy " Şair Evlenmesi " (شاعر اولنمسى; "The Poet's Marriage"). In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi (1844–1912) wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (حسن ملاح ياخود سر ايچيڭده اسرار Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr , 1873; " Hasan
16268-419: The lack of certainty regarding the stylistic movements and periods of Divan poetry, however, certain highly different styles are clear enough, and can perhaps be seen as exemplified by certain poets: The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazel s (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîde s. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly
16434-496: The last word being either zǔ ( 祖 ; "progenitor") or zōng ( 宗 ; "ancestor"). Since the Zhou dynasty , Chinese monarchs were frequently accorded posthumous names ( 謚號 ; shì hào ) after their death. Posthumous names were adjectives originally intended to determine the achievements and moral values, or the lack thereof, of one's life. Since both titles were accorded only after one's death, they were not effectively regnal names. As
16600-521: The line of previous pontiffs with their names. For example, David Bawden took the name Michael I when declared pope in 1990. Coptic popes also choose regnal names distinct from their given names. The use of regnal names ( laqab ) was uncommon in the Medieval Islamic era until the Abbasid Caliphate , when the first Abbasid caliph, Abu al-Abbas Abdullah ibn Muhammad , who overthrew
16766-570: The literature, which had become nearly as moribund as the empire itself. Broadly, these literary reforms can be grouped into two areas: The reforms to the literary language were undertaken because the Ottoman Turkish language was thought by the reformists to have effectively lost its way. It had become more divorced than ever from its original basis in Turkish, with writers using more and more words and even grammatical structures derived from Persian and Arabic, rather than Turkish. Meanwhile, however,
16932-575: The mainstream Roman Catholic Church, and each of these men only either has or had a minuscule following that recognized their claims. Probably because of the controversial Antipope John XXIII , new popes avoided taking the regnal name John for over 600 years until the election of Angelo Cardinal Roncalli in 1958. Immediately after his election, there was some confusion as to whether he would be known as John XXIII or John XXIV. Cardinal Roncalli thus moved to immediately resolve by declaring that he would be known as John XXIII. In 1978, Albino Luciani became
17098-617: The maintenance of shrines of worship but also (often) ordered their destruction. Modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians about these destruction being guided by religious zealotry; rather, the association of temples with sovereignty, power and authority is emphasized upon. Whilst constructing mosques were considered an act of royal duty to subjects, there are also several firmans in Aurangzeb's name, supporting temples, maths , chishti shrines, and gurudwaras , including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain ,
17264-487: The masses as well as Hindu court officials. In order to meet state expenditures, Aurangzeb had ordered increases in land taxes; the burden of which fell heavily upon the Hindu Jats. The reimposition of the jizya encouraged Hindus to flee to areas under East India Company jurisdiction, under which policies of religious sufferance and pretermissions of religious taxes prevailed. Aurangzeb issued land grants and provided funds for
17430-575: The monarchs that claimed the throne and were crowned chose a different name. Otto III, Duke of Bavaria became Bela V of Hungary, taking the name of his maternal grandfather, Béla IV of Hungary . On the other hand, Wenceslaus III of Bohemia signed his royal documents in Hungary as Ladislas, this being a very traditional name in the Kingdom. Later during the first half of the 14th century, Charles I of Hungary signed as " Carolus rex ", but in fact his birth name
17596-488: The name of Augustus, becoming Augustus III. The monarchs of Portugal have traditionally used their first baptismal name as their regnal name upon their accession. The only notable exception was Sancho I , who was born Martin of Burgundy ( Martinho de Borgonha , in Portuguese). As he was a younger son, Martin was expected to join the clergy, and was named after Saint Martin of Tours , on whose feast day he had been born. When
17762-404: The names of the founders of their houses as primary surnames. In order to tell them all apart from one another, secondary surnames are also used for the septs of each of the royal families that are eligible for the aforementioned rotations, names that often come from the names of state of the first members of their immediate lineages to rule in their lands. Whenever any of their direct heirs ascend
17928-596: The neighboring Safavid territories. In September 1657, Shah Jahan nominated his eldest and liberalist son Dara Shikoh as his successor, a move repudiated by Aurangzeb, who proclaimed himself emperor in February 1658. In April 1658, Aurangzeb defeated the allied army of Shikoh and the Kingdom of Marwar at the Battle of Dharmat . Aurangzeb's decisive victory at the Battle of Samugarh in May 1658 cemented his sovereignty and his suzerainty
18094-448: The new Pope, informing the world of the man elected Pope, and under which name he would be known during his reign. Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum: Habemus Papam ! Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum, Dominum [forename], Sanctæ Romanæ Ecclesiæ Cardinalem [surname], qui sibi nomen imposuit [papal name]. I announce to you a great joy: We have a Pope, The Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lord, Lord [forename], Cardinal of
18260-564: The next 900 years, until shortly before the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the oral and written traditions would remain largely separate from one another. With the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the two traditions came together for the first time. The earliest known examples of Turkic poetry date to sometime in the 6th century AD and were composed in the Uyghur language . Some of
18426-555: The novel and the short story. This trend began in 1861, with the translation into Ottoman Turkish of François Fénelon 's 1699 novel Les aventures de Télémaque , by Hüseyin Avni Pasha , to Sultan Abdülaziz . What is widely recognized as the first Turkish novel, Taaşuk-u Tal'at ve Fitnat (تعشق طلعت و فطنت; "Tal'at and Fitnat in Love") by Şemsettin Sami (also known as Sami Frashëri) (1850–1904),
18592-471: The number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half, to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility, the highest in the Mughal era. Many of them were Marathas and Rajputs , who were his political allies. However, Aurangzeb encouraged high ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam. Under his reign, the Mughal Empire contributed to the world's GDP by nearly 25%, surpassing Qing China , making it
18758-490: The officials allow a woman to be burnt" . Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds Ikram, later European travellers record that sati was not much practised in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. Historian Katherine Brown has noted that "The very name of Aurangzeb seems to act in
18924-482: The opposition of "the ascetic" and "the dervish" suggests, Divan poetry—much like Turkish folk poetry—was heavily influenced by Sufi thought . One of the primary characteristics of Divan poetry, however—as of the Persian poetry before it—was its mingling of the mystical Sufi element with a profane and even erotic element. Thus, the pairing of "the nightingale" and "the rose" simultaneously suggests two different relationships: Similarly, "the world" refers simultaneously to
19090-431: The oral traditions of the Oghuz Turks (a branch of the Turkic peoples which migrated towards western Asia and eastern Europe through Transoxiana , beginning in the 9th century). The Book of Dede Korkut endured in the oral tradition of the Oghuz Turks after settling in Anatolia. Alpamysh is an earlier epic, still preserved in the literature of various Turkic peoples of Central Asia in addition to its important place in
19256-486: The other hand, can be seen extensively in the tradition of the aşık s, or ozan s, who are roughly akin to medieval European minstrels and who traditionally have had a strong connection with the Alevi faith, which can be seen as something of a homegrown Turkish variety of Shi'a Islam. It is, however, important to note that in Turkish culture, such a neat division into Sufi and Shi'a is scarcely possible: for instance, Yunus Emre
19422-404: The other until the 19th century. The first of these two traditions is Turkish folk literature, and the second is Turkish written literature. For most of the history of Turkish literature, the salient difference between the folk and the written traditions has been the variety of language employed. The folk tradition, by and large, was an oral tradition carried on by minstrels and remained free of
19588-412: The physical world and to this physical world considered as the abode of sorrow and impermanence, while "the rosegarden" refers simultaneously to a literal garden and to the garden of Paradise . "The nightingale", or suffering lover, is often seen as situated—both literally and figuratively—in "the world", while "the rose", or beloved, is seen as being in "the rosegarden". Divan poetry was composed through
19754-490: The pinnacle of that literature. The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose . Of the two, poetry—specifically, Divan poetry—was by far the dominant stream. Moreover, until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction; that is, there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance , short story, or novel (though analogous genres did, to some extent, exist in both
19920-402: The poetry and song of the aşık / ozan tradition, being almost exclusively oral until the 19th century, remains anonymous. There are, however, a few well-known aşık s from before that time whose names have survived together with their works: the aforementioned Köroğlu (16th century); Karacaoğlan (1606?–1689?), who may be the best-known of the pre-19th century aşık s; Dadaloğlu (1785?–1868?), who
20086-475: The popular imagination as a signifier of politico-religious bigotry and repression, regardless of historical accuracy." The subject has also resonated in modern times with popularly accepted claims that he intended to destroy the Bamiyan Buddhas . As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the secular-religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. He made no mention of
20252-509: The princes and was well-regarded by Aurangzeb even though she shared the religious outlook of Dara. In 1656, a general under Qutb Shahi dynasty named Musa Khan led an army of 12,000 musketeers to attack Aurangzeb, who was besieging Golconda Fort . Later in the same campaign, Aurangzeb, in turn, rode against an army consisting of 8,000 horsemen and 20,000 Karnataki musketeers. After making clear his desire for his son Dara to take over after him, Shah Jahan fell ill with stranguary in 1657. He
20418-497: The rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which led to considerable dislike of Aurangzeb's economic policies; a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. According to Marc Jason Gilbert, Aurangzeb ordered the jizya fees to be paid in person, in front of a tax collector, where the non Muslims were to recite a verse in the Quran which referred to their inferior status as non Muslims. This decision led to protests and lamentations among
20584-481: The regnal names of the titled monarchs, who are known locally as the traditional rulers , serve two very important functions within the monarchical system . Firstly, seeing as how most states are organised in such a way as to mean that all of the legitimate descendants of the first man or woman to arrive at the site of any given community are considered its dynastic heirs , their thrones are usually rotated amongst almost endless pools of contending cousins who all share
20750-476: The reign of Edward VII at the beginning of the 20th century. Ancient rulers in many parts of the world took regnal names or throne names which were different from their personal name. This is known to be true, for instance, of several kings of Assyria , and appears to be the case for several kings of Judah . In Ancient Egypt , Pharaohs took a number of names—the praenomen being the most commonly used, on occasion in conjunction with their personal name. In
20916-423: The roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896—when the first collective literary movement arose—and 1923, when the Republic of Turkey was officially founded. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: The Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde , or "New Literature", movement began with the founding in 1891 of the magazine Servet-i Fünûn (ﺛﺮوت ﻓﻨﻮن; "Scientific Wealth"), which
21082-445: The same regnal name. For example, the same person was both King James VI of Scotland and King James I of England . The ordinal is not normally used for the first ruler of the name, but is used in historical references once the name is used again. Thus, Queen Elizabeth I of England was called simply "Elizabeth of England" until the accession of Queen Elizabeth II almost four centuries later in 1952; subsequent historical references to
21248-481: The same way that those of Europe do (e.g. the Victorian era). Whenever one hears of a person describing what happened at the time when so and so ruled over any particular place or people, what he or she is actually saying is that an event happened within a finite period of time, one that is equal to the duration of the reign of the monarch in question. Now seeing as how it is possible (and in fact common, particularly among
21414-508: The second half of the 11th century and are the earliest known examples of Turkish literature with few exceptions. One of the most important figures of early Turkish literature was the 13th century Sufi poet Yunus Emre . The golden age of Ottoman literature lasted from the 15th century until the 18th century and included mostly divan poetry but also some prose works, most notably the 10-volume Seyahatnâme (Book of Travels) written by Evliya Çelebi . The periodization of Turkic literature
21580-420: The southern tribes) for one individual to have several different names and aliases in a single life, a certain degree of uniformity in usage is required if the history of an entire state is to be tied to his or her name. It is for this reason that when new monarchs are enthroned, the uniqueness of their names is usually considered to be a matter of considerable importance (even when it is caused by nothing more than
21746-548: The strongest armies in the world. A staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb is credited with the construction of numerous mosques and patronizing works of Arabic calligraphy . He successfully imposed the Fatawa-i Alamgiri as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. Although Aurangzeb suppressed several local revolts, he maintained cordial relations with foreign governments. Aurangzeb
21912-439: The surprise of the opposing force commander. With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make an unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks. They had to give away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty. The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through the snow to Kabul . By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at
22078-407: The throne under the name Victoria. When Victoria's son, Prince Albert Edward, became king in 1901, he took the regnal name Edward VII , against the wish of his late mother. The new king declared that he chose the name Edward as an honoured name borne by six of his English predecessors, and that he preferred that the name Albert be only associated in royal history with his father . In 1936, after
22244-459: The thrones, they often use their septs' names as reign names as well, using the appropriate ordinals to differentiate themselves from the founders of the said septs. An example of this is found in the kingdom of Lagos , where the Adeniji-Adele family is distinguished from their numerous Adele cousins by the word Adeniji , which was actually the first name of the reigning founder of their branch of
22410-474: The time held that John Balliol had not been a legitimate king of Scots, making the new king's regnal number also a difficult issue. To avoid these problems, John took the regnal name of Robert III , honouring his father and great-grandfather . Upon the 1952 accession of Elizabeth II , the title Elizabeth II caused controversy in Scotland as there had never been a Scottish Elizabeth I . Winston Churchill suggested that British sovereigns would use either
22576-440: The unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted. The collectors were mandated to be Muslims. A majority of modern scholars reject that religious bigotry influenced the imposition; rather, realpolitik – economic constraints as a result of multiple ongoing battles and establishment of credence with the orthodox Ulemas – are held to be primary agents. Aurangzeb also enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at
22742-408: The world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, more than the entirety of Western Europe, and signaled proto-industrialization . Aurangzeb was an orthodox Muslim ruler. Subsequent to the policies of his three predecessors, he endeavored to make Islam a dominant force in his reign. However these efforts brought him into conflict with the forces that were opposed to this revival. Aurangzeb
22908-450: The written tradition as in the folk tradition—were derived either directly from the Persian literary tradition (the gazel غزل; the mesnevî مثنوی), or indirectly through Persian from the Arabic (the kasîde قصيده). However, the decision to adopt these poetic forms wholesale led to two important further consequences: Out of this confluence of choices, the Ottoman Turkish language—which
23074-583: Was a follower of the Mujaddidi Order and a disciple of the son of the Punjabi saint, Ahmad Sirhindi . He sought to establish Islamic rule as instructed and inspired by him. Sheikh Muhammad Ikram stated that after returning from Kashmir, Aurangzeb issued order in 1663, to ban the practice of Sati , a Hindu practice to burn a widow whenever her husband passed away. Ikram recorded that Aurangzeb issued decree: "in all lands under Mughal control, never again should
23240-635: Was acknowledged throughout the Empire. After Shah Jahan recovered from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort . Aurangzeb's reign is characterized by a period of rapid military expansion, with several dynasties and states being overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals also surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power. The Mughal military gradually improved and became one of
23406-462: Was alive, he cemented the idea that he had usurped the throne. "After the defeat of Dara, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara." Aurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along. Instead of looking to partition the empire between himself and Murad, he had his brother arrested and imprisoned at Gwalior Fort. Murad
23572-521: Was also adopted by rulers of Korea, Vietnam and Japan, with Japan still using the system to this day. The following table provides examples from China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam to illustrate the differences between monarchical titles in the Sinosphere. Bold characters represent the most common way to refer to the monarchs. During the Medieval Age, when the House of Árpád disappeared in 1301, two of
23738-491: Was also fluent in his ancestral language of Chagatai Turkic , but similar to his predecessors, he preferred to use Persian . On 28 May 1633, a war elephant stampeded through the Mughal imperial encampment. Aurangzeb rode against the elephant and threw his spear at its head. He was unhorsed but escaped death. For his courage, Aurangzeb's father conferred on him the title of Bahadur (brave) and presented him with gifts. When chided for his recklessness, Aurangzeb replied: If
23904-402: Was always highly distinct from spoken Turkish—was effectively born. This style of writing under Persian and Arabic influence came to be known as "Divan literature" (Turkish: divan edebiyatı ), dîvân (ديوان) being the Ottoman Turkish word referring to the collected works of a poet. Just as Turkish folk poetry was intimately bound up with Turkish folk music, so did Ottoman Divan poetry develop
24070-789: Was believed to have facilitated Shivaji's escape. After the Jat rebellion in Mathura (early 1670), which killed the patron of the town-mosque, Aurangzeb suppressed the rebels and ordered for the city's Kesava Deo temple to be demolished, and replaced with an Eidgah . In 1672–73, Aurangzeb ordered the resumption of all grants held by Hindus throughout the empire, though this was not followed absolutely in regions such as Gujarat , where lands granted in in'am to Charans were not affected. In around 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples, including those of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur, which were patronaged by rebels. The Jama Masjid at Golkunda
24236-570: Was born during the reign of his patrilineal grandfather Jahangir ( r. 1605–1627 ), the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire . In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, eight-year-old Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shikoh were sent to the Mughal court in Lahore as hostages of their grandfather Jahangir and his wife, Nur Jahan , as part of their father's pardon deal. After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in
24402-572: Was born in Dahod on 3 November 1618. His father was Emperor Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ), who hailed from the Mughal house of the Timurid dynasty . The latter was descended from Emir Timur ( r. 1370–1405 ), the founder of the Timurid Empire . Aurangzeb's mother Mumtaz Mahal was the daughter of the Persian nobleman Asaf Khan , who was the youngest son of vizier Mirza Ghiyas . Aurangzeb
24568-591: Was common for Chinese monarchs to proclaim more than one era name during a single reign, or that a single era name could span the reigns of several rulers. Monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties, however, often adopted only one era name throughout their reign. Thus, Chinese sovereigns of the Ming and Qing dynasties came to be highly associated with the corresponding era name of their reign and are commonly known by their respective era name with few exceptions, although era names were not effectively regnal names. The era name system
24734-516: Was conducted in the Persian language, rather than in Turkish, and where a court poet such as Dehhanî—who served under the 13th century sultan Ala ad-Din Kay Qubadh I —wrote in a language highly inflected with Persian. When the Ottoman Empire arose early in the 14th century, in northwestern Anatolia, it continued this tradition. The standard poetic forms—for poetry was as much the dominant genre in
24900-555: Was done for political reasons. Aurangzeb had his allied brother Prince Murad Baksh held for murder, judged and then executed. Aurangzeb was accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew Sulaiman Shikoh . Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666. Aurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors. Between 1679 and 1707,
25066-532: Was executed on 4 December 1661, ostensibly for the murder of the diwan of Gujarat. The allegation was encouraged by Aurangzeb, who caused the diwan's son to seek retribution for the death under the principles of Sharia law . Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab . The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja
25232-410: Was expected to adhere to the rules of sec' (سجع, also transliterated as seci ), or rhymed prose , a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a sentence, there must be a rhyme . Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time. This tradition was exclusively nonfictional in nature—the fiction tradition
25398-412: Was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather than pushing for complete victory. The four sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father's reign. The emperor favoured the eldest, Dara Shikoh . This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There
25564-457: Was kept in seclusion and cared for by Dara in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumours spread that Shah Jahan had died, which led to concerns among his younger sons. Subsequently, these younger sons took military actions seemingly in response but it is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death of Shah Jahan were true and that Dara might be hiding it for political gain, or whether
25730-459: Was largely devoted to progress—both intellectual and scientific—along the Western model. Accordingly, the magazine's literary ventures, under the direction of the poet Tevfik Fikret (1867–1915), were geared towards creating a Western-style " high art " in Turkey. The poetry of the group—of which Tevfik Fikret and Cenâb Şehâbeddîn (1870–1934) were the most influential proponents—was heavily influenced by
25896-463: Was limited to narrative poetry. A number of such nonfictional prose genres developed: By the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had become moribund . Attempts to right this situation had begun during the reign of Sultan Selim III , from 1789 to 1807, but were continuously thwarted by the powerful Janissary corps. As a result, only after Sultan Mahmud II had abolished the Janissary corps in 1826
26062-429: Was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture , the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son. Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war to the death among themselves. Historian Satish Chandra says that "In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity [were] the real arbiters". The contest for power
26228-460: Was one of the last of the great aşık s before the tradition began to dwindle somewhat in the late 19th century; and several others. The aşık s were essentially minstrels who travelled through Anatolia performing their songs on the bağlama , a mandolin -like instrument whose paired strings are considered to have a symbolic religious significance in Alevi/Bektashi culture. Despite the decline of
26394-414: Was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor. Other sources state that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became
26560-525: Was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb because, although all four sons had demonstrated competence in their official roles, it was around these two that the supporting cast of officials and other influential people mostly circulated. There were ideological differences – Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative – but, as historians Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf say, "To focus on divergent philosophies neglects
26726-488: Was published just ten years later, in 1872. However, there had actually been, according to Gonca Gökalp, five other earlier or contemporaneous works of fiction that were clearly distinct from earlier prose traditions in both Divan and folk literature, and that approximate novelistic form. Among these five works is the Muhayyelât of Ali Aziz Efendi , cited above. Another, 1851's Akabi Hikâyesi (" Akabi's Story "), written by
26892-464: Was similarly treated, after it was found that its ruler had built it to hide revenues from the state; however desecration of mosques are rare due to their complete lack of political capital contra temples. In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located. Richard Eaton, upon
27058-514: Was the Italian Caroberto . This is why he is often referred to by Hungarian historians as "Charles Robert of Hungary". All ruling male members of the House of Orange-Nassau bore the name Willem (William). The current king of the Netherlands was christened Willem-Alexander . During an interview in 1997 he said he intended to rule under the name of Willem IV, but he had a change of mind. In
27224-450: Was the case with Pope John XXIII . The practice of using the baptismal name as papal name has not been ruled out and future popes could elect to continue using their original names after being elected pope. Often the new pontiff's choice of name upon being elected to the papacy is seen as a signal to the world of whom the new pope will emulate or what policies he will seek to enact. Such is the case with Benedict XVI who, in fact, explained
27390-558: Was the longest reigning Mughal Emperor. His empire was also one of the largest in Indian history. However, his emperorship has a complicated legacy. His critics, citing his actions against the non-Muslims and his conservative view of Islam, argue that he abandoned the legacy of pluralism and tolerance of the earlier Mughal emperors. Others, however, reject these assertions, arguing that he opposed bigotry against Hindus, Sikhs and Shia Muslims and that he employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors. Aurangzeb
27556-488: Was the way paved for truly effective reforms (Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات tanzîmât ). These reforms finally came to the empire during the Tanzimat period of 1839–1876, when much of the Ottoman system was reorganized along largely French lines . The Tanzimat reforms "were designed both to modernize the empire and to forestall foreign intervention". Along with reforms to the Ottoman system, serious reforms were also undertaken in
#325674