42-526: Atwater may refer to: Places [ edit ] Atwater, California , a city in Merced County, California Atwater Village, Los Angeles , a neighborhood of the city of Los Angeles in Los Angeles County, California Atwater, Georgia Atwater, Illinois Atwater, Minnesota Atwater Township, Portage County, Ohio Atwater (CDP), Ohio ,
84-564: A calculated heat of combustion of 9.37 kcal/g (39.2 kJ/g) compared with that of cow milk fat of 9.19 kcal/g (38.5 kJ/g). Monosaccharides have heats of combustion of around 3.75 kcal/g (15.7 kJ/g), disaccharides 3.95 kcal/g (16.5 kJ/g) and polysaccharides 4.15 to 4.20 kcal/g (17.4 to 17.6 kJ/g). The heat of hydrolysis is very small and these values are essentially equivalent when calculated on a monosaccharide basis. Thus 100 g sucrose gives on hydrolysis 105.6 g monosaccharide and 100 g starch gives on hydrolysis 110 g glucose. The human digestive tract
126-551: A census-designated place in the township Atwater, Saskatchewan , a village in Saskatchewan, Canada Atwater, Wisconsin People with the surname [ edit ] Ann Atwater (1935–2016), American civil rights activist Barry Atwater (1918–1978), American actor Caleb Atwater (1778–1867), American politician, historian, and early archaeologist Dorence Atwater (1845–1910), American civil war soldier known for keeping
168-494: A food, as measured by bomb calorimetry is equal to the sum of the heats of combustion of the components – protein (GE p ), fat (GE f ) and carbohydrate (GE cho ) (by difference) in the proximate system. G E = G E p + G E f + G E c h o . {\displaystyle {GE}={{GE}_{\mathrm {p} }+{GE}_{\mathrm {f} }+{GE}_{\mathrm {cho} }}.} Atwater considered
210-573: A heat of combustion of 3.95 kcal/g (16.53 kJ/g) and starch 4.15 kcal/g (17.36 kJ/g). Secondly it does not provide for the fact that sugars and starch are virtually completely digested and absorbed, and thus provide metabolisable energy equivalent to their heat of combustion. The unavailable carbohydrates (dietary fibre) are degraded to a variable extent in the large bowel. The products of this microbial digestion are fatty acids, CO 2 (carbon dioxide), methane and hydrogen. The fatty acids (acetate, butyrate and propionate) are absorbed in
252-480: A low variance and have the appearance of constants. This is spurious since faecal excretion is variable even on a constant diet, and there is no evidence to suggest that faecal excretion is in fact related to intake in the way implied by these coefficients. The calculation of energy values must be regarded as an alternative to direct measurement, and therefore is likely to be associated with some inaccuracy when compared with direct assessment. These inaccuracies arise for
294-412: A mixture in the intestine, and from a practical view point, such studies with humans are difficult to control with the required accuracy. The carbohydrate by difference approach presents several problems. First, it does not distinguish between sugars, starch and the unavailable carbohydrates (roughage, or " dietary fibre "). This affects first the gross energy that is assigned to carbohydrate—sucrose has
336-457: A number of reasons The theoretical and physiological objections to the assumptions inherent in the Atwater system are likely to result in errors much smaller than these practical matters. Conversion factors were derived from experimental studies with young infants, but these produced values for metabolisable energy intake that were insignificantly different from those obtained by direct application of
378-434: A protein from amino-acid data, as some of the heats of combustion are not known accurately. Preliminary calculations on cow's milk suggest a value of around 5.5 kcal/g (23.0 kJ/g). Analogously the experimental evidence is limited, but since the fatty acids differ in their heats of combustion one should expect fats to vary in heats of combustion. These differences are, however, relatively small – for example, breast milk fat has
420-510: A public market in Montreal Atwater v. City of Lago Vista , a United States Supreme Court case United States Penitentiary, Atwater , a prison near Atwater, California The Atwater system for calculating the energy content of food (named after Wilbur Olin Atwater ) See also [ edit ] Attwater , a surname Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
462-565: A system for calculating faecal energy losses. Digestible energy = G E p ( D p ) + G E f ( D f ) + G E c h o ( D c h o ) , {\displaystyle {\text{Digestible energy}}={{GE}_{\mathrm {p} }(D_{\mathrm {p} })}+{{GE}_{\mathrm {f} }(D_{\mathrm {f} })}+{{GE}_{\mathrm {cho} }(D_{\mathrm {cho} })},} where D p , D f , and D cho are respectively
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#1732852101554504-473: Is a very efficient organ, and the faecal excretion of nitrogenous material and fats is a small proportion (usually less than 10%) of the intake. Atwater recognised that the faecal excretion was a complex mixture of unabsorbed intestinal secretions, bacterial material and metabolites, sloughed mucosal cells, mucus, and only to a small extent, unabsorbed dietary components. This might be one reason why he chose to use availability rather than digestibility . His view
546-463: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Atwater, California Atwater is a city on State Route 99 in Merced County , California , United States. Atwater is 8 miles (13 km) west-northwest of Merced , at an elevation of 151 feet (46 m). The population as of the 2020 census was 31,970, up from 28,168 in 2010. Atwater
588-452: Is different from those eaten in the US in the early 20th century. Atwater measured a large number of digestibility coefficients for simple mixtures, and in substitution experiments derived values for individual foods. These he combined in a weighted fashion to derive values for mixed diets. When these were tested experimentally with mixed diets they did not give a good prediction, and Atwater adjusted
630-414: Is different. This system relies on having measured heats of combustion of a wide range of isolated proteins, fats and carbohydrates. It also depends on data from digestibility studies, where individual foods have been substituted for basal diets in order to measure the apparent digestibility coefficients for those foods. This approach is based on the assumption that there are no interactions between foods in
672-414: Is due to an effect on small intestinal absorption is not clear. The increased faecal nitrogen losses on high fibre diets are probably due to an increased bacterial nitrogen content of the faeces. Both these effects however lead to reductions in apparent digestibility, and therefore the Atwater system warrants small changes in the proper energy conversion factors for those diets. The experimental evidence for
714-511: Is in northern Merced County, between Merced, the county seat , to the southeast and Livingston to the northwest. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 6.6 square miles (17 km ). 99.92% of it is land and 0.08% is water. The city includes Castle Air Museum , but does not include the former Castle Air Force Base proper, now repurposed as Castle Airport . The railroad reached Atwater in
756-630: Is the closest elementary school to the section of Atwater. Merced Union High School District operates Atwater High School and Buhach Colony High School , both of which serve and reside in Atwater. Atwater currently does not have a daily newspaper , although many of its residents use the daily paper, the Merced Sun-Star , which is published in nearby Merced . Additionally Atwater residents rely on local Facebook pages such as "Merced County news". Atwater has two weekly newspapers called The Atwater Signal and The Atwater Times . The Atwater Signal
798-773: The United States House of Representatives , Atwater is in California's 13th congressional district , represented by Republican John Duarte . Most of the city is zoned to the Atwater Elementary School District . Schools of AESD within Atwater and serving Atwater include: A small section of eastern Atwater is located in the Merced City School District ; that section is zoned to Rudolph Rivera Middle School. Franklin Elementary School
840-750: The "Atwater List" of Union fatalities Edwin Atwater (1808–1874), municipal alderman in Montreal for the district of Saint-Antoine Harry Atwater (born 1960), professor of physics at California Institute of Technology Helen W. Atwater (1876–1947), American author, home economist and editor Isaac Atwater (1818–1906), American jurist Jeff Atwater (born 1958), American politician Jeremiah Atwater (1773–1858), American educator, minister, and President of Middlebury College John Atwater (died 1499), Irish politician Lee Atwater (1951–1991), American Republican political strategist Mary Meigs Atwater (1878-1956), American handweaver, author, founder of
882-416: The 1870s, and a town grew around it. The first post office opened in 1880. Atwater incorporated in 1922. The name honors Marshall D. Atwater, a wheat farmer whose land was used by the railroad for its station. North of the town is the site of Castle Air Force Base , the former World War II Merced Army Airfield . Castle was selected for closure under the 1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission and
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#1732852101554924-399: The 7,247 households 45.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.9% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.8% were non-families. 17.6% of households were one person and 6.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.15 and the average family size was 3.55. The age distribution was 34.9% under
966-731: The Shuttle-craft Guild Reuben Atwater (1768–1831), American politician Richard M. Atwater (1844–1922), American chemist Richard and Florence Atwater (1892–1948; 1899–1979), authors of the children's book Mr. Popper's Penguins Steve Atwater (born 1966), former Denver Broncos and New York Jets Free Safety Tanya Atwater (born 1942), professor of geological sciences at the University of California, Santa Barbara who specializes in plate tectonics Tony Atwater , president of Indiana University of Pennsylvania Wilbur Olin Atwater (1844–1907), American developer of
1008-433: The age of 18, 10.0% from 18 to 24, 28.6% from 25 to 44, 17.4% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% 65 or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males. The median income for a household in Atwater is $ 37,344, and the median family income was $ 39,789. Males had a median income of $ 32,983 versus $ 22,450 for females. The per capita income for
1050-645: The base closed September 30, 1995. The site is now a public airport. On May 15, 2020, Atwater declared itself a business "sanctuary city" during the coronavirus pandemic. At the 2010 census Atwater had a population of 28,168. The population density was 4,620.8 inhabitants per square mile (1,784.1/km ). The racial makeup of Atwater was 18,410 (65.4%) White, 14,808 (52.6%) Hispanic or Latino of any race, 1,225 (4.3%) African American, 364 (1.3%) Native American, 1,416 (5.0%) Asian, 76 (0.3%) Pacific Islander, 5,300 (18.8%) from other races, and 1,377 (4.9%) from two or more races. The census reported that 28,066 people (99.6% of
1092-469: The city was $ 15,162. About 15.3% of families and 18.7% of the population were below the poverty line , including 25.1% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over. In the California State Legislature , Atwater is in the 12th Senate District , represented by Republican Shannon Grove , and in the 21st Assembly District , represented by Democrat Diane Papan . In
1134-490: The coefficients for mixed diets. The energy/nitrogen ratio in urine shows considerable variation and the energy/organic matter is less variable, but the energy/nitrogen value provided Atwater with a workable approach although this has caused some confusion and only applies for subjects in nitrogen balance. Based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids . The system
1176-977: The digestibility coefficients of protein, fat and carbohydrate calculated as intake − faecal excretion intake {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{intake}}-{\text{faecal excretion}}}{\text{intake}}}} for the constituent in question. Urinary losses were calculated from the energy to nitrogen ratio in urine. Experimentally this was 7.9 kcal/g (33 kJ/g) urinary nitrogen and thus his equation for metabolisable energy became M E = ( G E p − 7.9 6.25 ) D p + G E f D f + G E c h o D c h o . {\displaystyle {ME}=\left({GE}_{\mathrm {p} }-{\frac {7.9}{6.25}}\right)D_{\mathrm {p} }+{GE}_{\mathrm {f} }D_{\mathrm {f} }+{GE}_{\mathrm {cho} }D_{\mathrm {cho} }.} Atwater collected values from
1218-1105: The early years of the 20th at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut . Its use has frequently been the cause of dispute, but few alternatives have been proposed. As with the calculation of protein from total nitrogen, the Atwater system is a convention and its limitations can be seen in its derivation. Available energy (as used by Atwater) is equivalent to the modern usage of the term metabolisable energy (ME). Metabolisable Energy = ( Gross Energy in Food ) − ( Energy lost in Faeces, Urine, Secretions and Gases ) . {\displaystyle {\text{Metabolisable Energy}}=\left({\text{Gross Energy in Food}}\right)-\left({\text{Energy lost in Faeces, Urine, Secretions and Gases}}\right).} In most studies on humans, losses in secretions and gases are ignored. The gross energy (GE) of
1260-523: The energy value of feces in the same way. G E F = G E p F + G E f F + G E c h o F . {\displaystyle {GE}^{\mathrm {F} }={{GE}_{\mathrm {p} }^{\mathrm {F} }+{GE}_{\mathrm {f} }^{\mathrm {F} }+{GE}_{\mathrm {cho} }^{\mathrm {F} }}.} By measuring coefficients of availability or in modern terminology apparent digestibility , Atwater derived
1302-405: The large intestine and provide some metabolisable energy. The extent of degradation depends on the source of the dietary fibre (its composition and state of division), and the individual consuming the dietary fibre. There is insufficient data to give firm guidance on the energy available from this source. Finally dietary fibre affects faecal losses of nitrogen and fat. Whether the increased fat loss
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1344-412: The literature and also measured the heat of combustion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. These vary slightly depending on sources and Atwater derived weighted values for the gross heat of combustion of the protein, fat and carbohydrate in the typical mixed diet of his time. It has been argued that these weighted values are invalid for individual foods and for diets whose composition in terms of foodstuffs
1386-426: The magnitude of this variation is very limited, but as the heats of combustion of the individual amino-acids are different it is reasonable to expect variations between different proteins. An observed range of from 5.48 for conglutin (from blue lupin) to 5.92 for Hordein (barley) was reported, which compares with Atwaters' range of 5.27 for gelatin to 5.95 for wheat gluten. It is difficult to calculate expected values for
1428-423: The occupied units 4,905 (55.5%) were owner-occupied and 3,933 (44.5%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 3.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 10.9%. 14,920 people (53.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 13,146 people (46.7%) lived in rental housing units. At the 2000 census there were 23,113 people in 7,247 households, including 5,667 families, in the city. The population density
1470-617: The population) lived in households, 31 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 71 (0.3%) were institutionalized. There were 8,838 households, 4,255 (48.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 4,593 (52.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,558 (17.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 672 (7.6%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 615 (7.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships , and 60 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships . 1,615 households (18.3%) were one person and 738 (8.4%) had someone living alone who
1512-746: The respiration calorimeter William Atwater (curator) (born 1945), Director of the U.S. Army Ordnance Museum in Maryland Other [ edit ] Atwater (Montreal Metro) , a station on the Green Line of the Montreal Metro Atwater Avenue , a street in Montreal Atwater Library of the Mechanics' Institute of Montreal , an independent library in Montreal operated by the Mechanics' Institute of Montreal Atwater Market ,
1554-412: The title Atwater . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atwater&oldid=1188807503 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description
1596-420: Was 4,277.4 inhabitants per square mile (1,651.5/km ). There were 8,114 housing units at an average density of 1,501.6 per square mile (579.8/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 57.34% White, 4.99% Black or African American, 1.27% Native American, 5.43% Asian, 0.36% Pacific Islander, 24.48% from other races, and 6.14% from two or more races. 41.51% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of
1638-588: Was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.18. There were 6,823 families (77.2% of households); the average family size was 3.61. The age distribution was 9,016 people (32.0%) under the age of 18, 2,968 people (10.5%) aged 18 to 24, 7,492 people (26.6%) aged 25 to 44, 5,760 people (20.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 2,932 people (10.4%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 30.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males. There were 9,771 housing units at an average density of 1,602.9 per square mile, of
1680-417: Was first published in 1911. The Atwater Times is published by Mid Valley Publications, once a week. Atwater system The Atwater system , named after Wilbur Olin Atwater , or derivatives of this system are used for the calculation of the available energy of foods . The system was developed largely from the experimental studies of Atwater and his colleagues in the later part of the 19th century and
1722-452: Was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA , who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed. This takes cognizance of the fact that first the gross energy values of the protein, fats and carbohydrates from different food sources are different, and second, that the apparent digestibility of the components of different foods
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1764-457: Was that these faecal constituents were truly unavailable and that his apparent disregard of the nature of faecal excretion was justifiable in a practical context. The ratio intake − faecal excretion intake , {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{intake}}-{\text{faecal excretion}}}{\text{intake}}},} wherever faecal excretion is small, will approximate to unity and thus these coefficients have
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