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112-631: The Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was formed after the United States attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9, 1945. The ABCC originally began as the Joint Commission The ABCC set out to obtain first-hand technical information and make a report to let people know the opportunities for a long-term study of atomic bomb casualties. In 1946, Lewis Weed, head of the National Research Council , called together

224-721: A plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon . The 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces was trained and equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress , and deployed to Tinian in the Mariana Islands . The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on 26 July 1945,

336-487: A 2–4 km. radius had slight damage, and which would not cause death, but would cause some health problems during the several months after the exposure. The ABCC grew rapidly in 1948 and 1949. Their staff numbers quadrupled in just one year. By 1951 the total stood at 1063 employees – 143 allied and 920 Japanese personnel. Perhaps the most important research undertaken by the ABCC was the genetics study, which focused its study on

448-606: A Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima. Three days later, a Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki. Over the next two to four months, the effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000 to 166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000 to 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half occurred on the first day. For months afterward, many people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness , and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. Despite Hiroshima's sizable military garrison, most of

560-518: A darkness associated with it. Even the original maker of the measles vaccine Dr. Samuel L. Katz tried to shoot down the allegations claiming that they were in fact not true but was unsuccessful in saving his name before the media tarnished it. The majority of the allegations in Darkness in El Dorado have since been found to have been fabricated by the author. Among majority allegations against Neel, there

672-599: A degree in biology in 1935 and went on to receive his Ph.D. at the University of Rochester . In 1956, Neel established the University of Michigan Department of Genetics, the first department of human genetics at a medical school in the United States . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971. Neel first found the inheritance of sickle cell anemia through its genetic basis. This

784-495: A detailed description of all the data they had collected Despite their efforts, trust in the ABCC was declining, so the ABCC became the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), and with the new name and administrative organization, funding for the research on survivors was to be provided equally by the United States and Japan. The RERF was established on 1 April 1975. A binational organization run by both

896-504: A field of research in the United States. He made important contributions to the emergence of genetic epidemiology and pursued an understanding of the influence of environment on genes . In his early work, he studied sickle-cell disease and acatalasia . conducted research on the effects of radiation on survivors of the Hiroshima atomic bombing . Neel attended the College of Wooster with

1008-628: A greater loss of life; according to critics, the bombings were unnecessary for the war's end and were a war crime , raising moral and ethical implications. In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by

1120-472: A group of scientists who agreed that a "detailed and long-range study of the biological and medical effects upon the human being" was "of the utmost importance to the United States and mankind in general." President Harry S. Truman ordered the ABCC into existence on November 26, 1946. The key members in the ABCC were Lewis Weed, National Research Council physicians Austin M. Brues and Paul Henshaw, and Army representatives Melvin A. Block, and James V. Neel who

1232-490: A large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value." Edwin O. Reischauer , a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service , was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim: ... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction

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1344-423: A large war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of

1456-729: A leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "...   we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked   ..." Hiroshima was not listed. In 1943, the United States and the United Kingdom signed the Quebec Agreement , which stipulated that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of

1568-537: A leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots". In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer-led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of

1680-525: A meeting with the President and commanders on 18 June 1945, General George C. Marshall stated that "there was reason to believe" casualties for the first 30 days would not exceed the price paid for Luzon . Additionally, with the Japanese position rendered "hopeless" by an invasion of their mainland, Marshall speculated that Soviet entry into the war might be "the decisive action" needed to finally "[leverage] them into capitulation." Marshall began contemplating

1792-549: A peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government . At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000–350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned

1904-564: A predisposition to type 2 diabetes mellitus . This theory was later discredited by research conducted by Neel himself. Source: A journalist by the name of Patrick Tierny published information that discredited Neel in relation to his work in the Amazon with the Yanomami population. He alleged many of things, among which were that he studied the genome of the Yanomami to compare with mutations among

2016-573: A press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash ( yakinaoshi ) of the Cairo Declaration , that the government intended to ignore it ( mokusatsu , "kill by silence"), and that Japan would fight to the end. The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change

2128-498: A request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. There were two uranium-235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile

2240-406: A result." The damages were rated by severity. People suffering from severe damage were people who were in within a 1 km radius of the hypocenter. The severely affected people typically died within a few days, some living as long as two weeks. Moderate damage was seen in people living in a 1–2 km. radius from the hypocenter, and those people would live for 2–6 weeks. Those people living within

2352-540: A series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū . This was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet , the capture of the Kantō Plain , near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First , Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date

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2464-461: A series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities. Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam , Tinian , and Saipan in

2576-676: A study by the Joint War Plans Committee, drawing on the experience of the Battle of Leyte , estimated that Downfall would result in 132,500 to 220,000 U.S. casualties, with U.S. dead and missing in the range from 27,500 to 50,000. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson commissioned his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley , who estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million. In

2688-622: Is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier. Extant sources show that while Stimson was personally familiar with Kyoto, this was the result of a visit decades after his marriage, not because he honeymooned there. On 30 May, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about

2800-611: Is a memo to the Neel family that was made in hopes to clear Neel of all allegations. This can be found here: https://dwhume.com/darkness-in-el-dorado-controversy/0167.htm Another link to how Neel conducted scientific collaboration in Latin America: https://www.scielo.br/j/gmb/a/MFFkDDXQ9B45Dd3pP4hjRtn/?lang=en Link to picture of Neel with Yanomamo men in South America: https://diglib.amphilsoc.org/islandora/object/graphics%3A1624 Neel

2912-416: Is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target." The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining

3024-413: Is that Neel deliberately injected South American natives with virulent measles vaccine to spark off an epidemic that killed hundreds and probably thousands. However, these claims against him were never substantiated with any evidence, and it was found later that the measles outbreak predated his arrival. Unfortunately, the media saw this as an opportunity for a big story and ran with it giving Neel's name

3136-649: The American Philosophical Society , the National Research Council , the Pan-American Health Organization , and the World Health Organization . James V. Neel contributed significantly to the development of modern human genetics throughout his career. His notable works include: James V. Neel was a pivotal figure in the development of human genetics due to his research pursuits, leadership roles, and enduring vestige within

3248-601: The Combined Policy Committee , which included one Canadian representative, was held at the Pentagon on 4 July 1945. Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by

3360-534: The Einstein–Szilard letter to Roosevelt in 1939. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically -pure uranium-235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water . Consequently,

3472-544: The Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear technology . They agreed that the atomic bomb was to be used (1) against Japan at the earliest opportunity, (2) without special warning, and (3) on a "dual target" of military installation surrounded by other buildings susceptible to damage. During

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3584-512: The Mariana Islands would better serve as B-29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B-29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on 18 November 1944. The early attempts to bomb Japan from

3696-399: The 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August. At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army , which commanded

3808-422: The 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city. Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. It supported

3920-475: The 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B-29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight. The first plutonium core , along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator , was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for

4032-523: The 509th Composite Group moved by rail on 26 April 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington. On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of

4144-523: The 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta , known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B-29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel-injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible-pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements. The ground support echelon of

4256-501: The Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross register tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. The lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout

4368-457: The Allies on 15 August, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan and invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchuria . The Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender on 2 September, effectively ending the war . In the final year of World War II , the Allies prepared for a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland . This undertaking

4480-579: The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was planning on stopping funding for the ABCC's work in Japan. However, James V. Neel made an appeal and the AEC decided to fund them $ 20,000 a year, for three years, to continue research. In 1956, Neel and William J. Schull published their final draft of The Effect of Exposure to the Atomic Bombs on Pregnancy Termination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki . This monograph gave

4592-462: The Manhattan Project took place at dozens of sites across the United States, and even some outside of its borders. It would ultimately cost over US$ 2 billion (equivalent to about $ 27 billion in 2023) and employ over 125,000 people simultaneously at its peak. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , where bomb design work

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4704-706: The Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China-based B-29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so-called high-altitude precision bombing , aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action. Hansell's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay , assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use

4816-561: The Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines , recaptured Burma , and invaded Borneo . Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville , New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa , where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from five to one in

4928-461: The Philippines to two to one on Okinawa. Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner , most fought until they were killed or committed suicide . Nearly 99 percent of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April to June 1945, 94 percent were killed; 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedentedly large number. As

5040-501: The Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , at the upcoming Potsdam Conference , as this also required British concurrence. Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy ,

5152-407: The U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks . These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of 6 August 1945. James V. Neel James Van Gundia Neel (March 22, 1915 – February 1, 2000) was an American geneticist who played a key role in the development of human genetics as

5264-632: The USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann , Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on 27 April; at Los Alamos on 10 May, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on 28 May, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman . The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura (now Kitakyushu ),

5376-496: The United States and Japan, the RERF is still in operation today. Hiroshima and Nagasaki Second Sino-Japanese War On 6 and 9 August 1945, the United States detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , respectively. The bombings killed between 150,000 and 246,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. Japan surrendered to

5488-541: The United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action . Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive . Worried by the losses sustained, President Roosevelt suggested

5600-593: The acting chief of staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. It read in part: That day, Truman noted in his diary that: This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as

5712-467: The air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men, flew by C-54 to North Field on Tinian, between 15 and 22 May. There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on

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5824-452: The air raids to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B-29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, to conserve supplies of fuel. In July 1945, the Japanese had 137,800,000 litres (1,156,000 US bbl) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 72,000,000 litres (604,000 US bbl) had been consumed in

5936-598: The alternative being "prompt and utter destruction". The Japanese government ignored the ultimatum. The consent of the United Kingdom was obtained for the bombing, as was required by the Quebec Agreement , and orders were issued on 25 July by General Thomas Handy , the acting chief of staff of the United States Army , for atomic bombs to be used against Hiroshima, Kokura , Niigata , and Nagasaki. These targets were chosen because they were large urban areas that also held militarily significant facilities. On 6v August,

6048-406: The area. There were also people from surrounding areas who would come into the city on an irregular basis to serve in work crews. Robert Holmes, who was director of the ABCC from 1954-1957, said that "[the survivors] are the most important people living" The ABCC also drew on the work of Chinese scientists, who were already studying the survivors in the time before the ABCC arrived in Japan, so there

6160-485: The atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a failure, as the Trinity test was that of a stationary device, not an air-dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at

6272-470: The bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka , the U.S. fire-bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. The Japanese military

6384-442: The chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though

6496-426: The city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B-29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 percent of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan's "paper cities". By mid-June, Japan's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing

6608-411: The dead were civilians. Scholars have extensively studied the effects of the bombings on the social and political character of subsequent world history and popular culture , and there is still much debate concerning the ethical and legal justification for the bombings. According to supporters, the atomic bombings were necessary to bring an end to the war with minimal casualties and ultimately prevented

6720-519: The defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle . Hata's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army , the 5th Division and the 224th Division , a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 70 mm and 80 mm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of

6832-464: The entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate. Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on 8 May 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall , the Allied invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: set to begin in October 1945, Operation Olympic involved

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6944-429: The fact that treatment was what the hibakusha wanted. This led to criticism that they were treated as guinea pigs even though the war was over. The pros: they provided people with valuable medical information. Infants received a check up at birth and again at 9 months, which was not common at the time. Medical check ups on healthy infants were unheard of. Adults also benefited from frequent medical examinations. In 1951,

7056-429: The final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all-too-long intervals. We could not afford

7168-419: The foundation for it being discovered. Neel developed the " thrifty gene hypothesis " that paleolithic humans, facing long periods of hunger punctuated by brief periods of food surplus, would have adapted genetically by processing fats and carbohydrates more efficiently during feast periods, to be physiologically resilient during periods of famine. Neel believed that this genetic adaptation might have created

7280-561: The government position. Japan's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity ), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands , Korea or Formosa , and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government. At Potsdam, Truman agreed to

7392-454: The greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released.   ... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that

7504-565: The home islands area in April, May and June 1945. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids. The discovery of nuclear fission in 1938 made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in

7616-484: The home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff , Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi , predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths. The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. On 15 June 1945,

7728-596: The industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command's priority target. On 3 July, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto. The population of Hiroshima had reached

7840-466: The leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop that terrible bomb on the old capital [Kyoto] or the new [Tokyo]. He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one. The 16 July success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On 26 July, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration , which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration

7952-459: The matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On 25 July, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance. In early May 1945,

8064-470: The meetings on 31 May and 1 June, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that: It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during

8176-421: The missions over Japan were flown by single unescorted bombers with a single payload to accustom the Japanese to this pattern. They also simulated actual atomic bombing runs, including the directions of ingress and egress with respect to the wind. Tibbets himself was barred from flying most missions over Japan for fear that he might be captured and interrogated. On 5 April 1945, the code name Operation Centerboard

8288-615: The only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. Like most strategic bombing during World War II , the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale . Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 64 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo , codenamed Operation Meetinghouse , on 9–10 March, killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 41 km (16 sq mi) of

8400-587: The possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war. The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on 11 June and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on 16 June, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to

8512-400: The psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area-bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of

8624-433: The purpose by Philip Morrison . Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a neutron reflector . The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July, and arrived at North Field 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s, two from

8736-416: The same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low-level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were

8848-566: The scientific community. From his investigations into the genetic effects of radiation exposure after the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki to his leadership in founding the Department of Genetics at the University of Michigan, Neel has had an undeniable influence in shaping genetic research. His work with Sickle Cell Anemia provided insights into the genetic basis of the disease and its prevalence in populations exposed to malaria. His prominence

8960-439: The site of one of Japan's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima , an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama , an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata , a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto , a major industrial center. The target selection

9072-478: The spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons , the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs". In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from

9184-400: The start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive. For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 percent destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase

9296-481: The survivors and their children. This project turned out to be the largest and most interactive of the ABCC programs. In 1957, Japan passed the Atomic Bomb Survivors Relief Law, which qualified certain people for two medical exams per year. The Japanese term for the survivors of the atomic bombs is hibakusha . The qualifications for medical care were those within a few kilometers of the hypocenters at

9408-429: The survivors in the atomic bombing in Japan. To that, it was said that unethical practices were performed with the Yanomami population and that radioactive iodine injections were used to find leadership genes from the headmen of Yanomami. These allegations were later to be found without evidence from various examiners. Neel was especially focused on comprehending the human genome in an evolutionary light. This concept

9520-490: The time of the bombings; those within 2 kilometers of the hypocenters within two weeks of the bombings; those exposed to radiation from fallout and children who were in utero by women who fit into any of the other categories. There were pros and cons to the ABCC. The cons: they overlooked Japanese needs in small details. The flooring in the waiting room for mothers and babies was polished linoleum, and women in their wooden clogs would often slip and fall. The signs and magazines in

9632-399: The uncertainties surrounding the possible long-term effects of ionizing radiation in pregnant women and their unborn children. The study did not find evidence of widespread genetic damage. It did, however, find increased incidence of microcephaly and mental retardation in children most proximally exposed in utero to the bombs' radiation. The genetics project studied the effects of radiation on

9744-425: The uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership . No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was 27 July, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it

9856-509: The use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives": poison gas . Quantities of phosgene , mustard gas , tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration

9968-408: The use of atomic bombs on Germany as soon as possible, but was informed the first usable atomic weapons were still months away. America's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war-weary, and demanding that long-serving servicemen be sent home. In

10080-575: The waiting rooms were in English. The ABCC did not actually treat the survivors they studied, they just studied them over periods of time. They had them come for examination during weekday working hours, causing the person to lose a day of pay, and they offered little compensation to the survivors. ABCC was there that they performed medical exams on hibakusha and autopsies on the dead, as well as collected countless numbers of blood and urine samples. However, they did not perform any kind of medical treatment, despite

10192-433: The war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 percent of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan's production of 70,000 for

10304-405: The war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use." Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on 21 June to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target. Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of

10416-528: The work was accelerated, first as a pilot program, and finally in the agreement by Roosevelt to turn the work over to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to construct the production facilities necessary to produce uranium-235 and plutonium-239 . This work was consolidated within the newly created Manhattan Engineer District, which became better known as the Manhattan Project , eventually under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. . The work of

10528-427: Was 30 July. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on 27 July, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on 30 July. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on 1 and 4 August. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of

10640-528: Was addressed in his fieldwork, alongside cultural anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon among the Yanomamo and Xavante in Brazil and Venezuela . His involvement in this fieldwork came under scrutiny in the Darkness in El Dorado controversy, a scandal in anthropology that broke in 2000 after his death involving numerous allegations of unethical research that threatened serious damage to Neel's reputation. The accusation

10752-535: Was also an MD with a Ph.D. in genetics. The fifth person on the team was USNV Ltd. Jg Fredrick Ullrich of Naval Medical Research Center appointed by the National Research Council at the suggestion of the Surgeon General's Office. The ABCC arrived in Japan on November 24, 1946, and familiarized themselves with the procedures of the Japanese military. They visited Hiroshima and Nagasaki to see what work

10864-529: Was also given to using biological weapons . While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long-ranged Boeing B-29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India-based B-29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make

10976-492: Was assigned. The officer responsible for its allocation in the War Department 's Operations Division was not cleared to know any details of it. The first bombing was later codenamed Operation Centerboard I, and the second, Operation Centerboard II. The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength,

11088-576: Was being done. They found that the Japanese had a well-organized medical group under the Japanese National Research Council, who were carrying out studies on both immediate and delayed atomic bomb damage in survivors. It’s almost impossible to get an exact figure of how many people were killed in the two bombings, because both cities had people who had evacuated since it was a time of war. Hiroshima expected bombings, since they were an important military supply center, so many people had left

11200-467: Was carried out. Two different types of bombs were eventually developed: a gun-type fission weapon that used uranium-235, called Little Boy , and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon that used plutonium-239, called Fat Man . There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program , but it lacked the human, mineral, and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb. The 509th Composite Group

11312-551: Was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass. Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō , accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend

11424-468: Was completed on 15 June, and the target insert on 24 July. The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California, on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS  Indianapolis , and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. The target insert followed by air on 30 July, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. Responding to concerns expressed by

11536-615: Was concerned with nuclear fallout and radiation damage . He was active in the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission and the Radiation Effects Research Foundation . He testified several times before committees and sub-committees of the United States Congress as an expert witness regarding the long-term effects of radiation on human populations. He was also involved with the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,

11648-449: Was constituted on 9 December 1944, and activated on 17 December 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets . Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group

11760-456: Was designated as a "composite" rather than a "bombardment" unit. Due to its remoteness, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas and Mountain Home, Idaho . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs , targeting islands around Tinian and later the Japanese home islands, until as late as 14 August 1945. Some of

11872-605: Was further established by his membership to the National Academy of Sciences and the honor of multiple prestigious awards to recognize his groundbreaking contributions. Beyond his scientific achievements, Neel was an advocate for public health and stressed the importance of looking at genetic differences from an evolutionary angle. He made it known that we as a society should look at the bigger picture referencing genetic changes and genetic research should consider both biology and evolution. Through his legacy, Neel continues to shape

11984-628: Was information from both American and Chinese officials. Masao Tsuzuki was the leading Japanese authority on the biological effects of radiation. He said there were four causes of injury in the bombed cities: heat, blast, primary radiation and radioactive poisonous gas. In a report that was released by Tsuzuki, he answered the question, "What does strong radioactive energy do to the human body?" His answer was, "damage to blood, then hematopoietic organs such as bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes. All are destroyed or damaged severely. Lungs, intestines, liver, kidney etc are affected and their functions disturbed as

12096-506: Was preceded by a conventional bombing and firebombing campaign that devastated 64 Japanese cities, including an operation on Tokyo . The war in the European theatre concluded when Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945, and the Allies turned their full attention to the Pacific War . By July 1945, the Allies' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs: " Little Boy ", an enriched uranium gun-type fission weapon , and " Fat Man ",

12208-476: Was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland". The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué. On 28 July, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki declared at

12320-464: Was subject to the following criteria: These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids, and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it

12432-400: Was the first step to learning all of what we know genetically about sickle cell disease. He found that the sickle cell trait itself was heterozygous and the disease was expressed when the gene was recessive homozygous. This was very difficult to figure out at the time with the current knowledge and while he did not find the relationship between malaria and sickle cell himself his work did provide

12544-523: Was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and anti-aircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept

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