48-516: See List of Aspergillus species Aspergillus ( / ˌ æ s p ər ˈ dʒ ɪ l ə s / ) is a genus consisting of several hundred mold species found in various climates worldwide. Aspergillus was first catalogued in 1729 by the Italian priest and biologist Pier Antonio Micheli . Viewing the fungi under a microscope, Micheli was reminded of the shape of an aspergillum (holy water sprinkler), from Latin spargere (to sprinkle), and named
96-676: A citric acid-producing strain of A. niger . TIGR, now renamed the J. Craig Venter Institute , is currently spearheading a project on the A. flavus genome. Aspergillus is characterized by high levels of genetic diversity and, using protostome divergence as a scale, is as diverse as the Vertebrates phylum although both inter and intra-specific genome structure is relatively plastic. The genomes of some Aspergillus species, such as A. flavus and A. oryzae , are more rich and around 20% larger than others, such as A. nidulans and A. fumigatus . Several mechanisms could explain this difference, although
144-678: A complete lack of key nutrients. Aspergillus niger is a prime example of this; it can be found growing on damp walls, as a major component of mildew . Several species of Aspergillus , including A. niger and A. fumigatus , will readily colonise buildings, favouring warm and damp or humid areas such as bathrooms and around window frames . Aspergillus are found in millions of pillows. Species of Aspergillus are important medically and commercially. Some species can cause infection in humans and other animals. Some infections found in animals have been studied for years, while other species found in animals have been described as new and specific to
192-458: A fungal fermentation process. CA is in high demand for applications such as the control of microorganism growth, food and beverage flavor enhancement, acidity manipulation, pharmaceuticals, etc. A. niger produces many useful enzymes for the catabolism of biopolymers in order to obtain nutrients from its environment. The production of specific enzymes can be increased for industrial purposes. For example, A. niger glucoamylase ( P69328 )
240-507: A global scale, again suggesting sex, in this case outcrossing sex, can be maintained even when little genetic variability is produced. The simultaneous publication of three Aspergillus genome manuscripts in Nature in December 2005 established the genus as the leading filamentous fungal genus for comparative genomic studies. Like most major genome projects, these efforts were collaborations between
288-684: A large sequencing centre and the respective community of scientists. For example, the Institute for Genome Research (TIGR) worked with the A. fumigatus community. A. nidulans was sequenced at the Broad Institute. A. oryzae was sequenced in Japan at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology . The Joint Genome Institute of the Department of Energy has released sequence data for
336-540: A number of morphologically similar species were described by Samson et al. In 2007, the strain of ATCC 16404 Aspergillus niger was reclassified as Aspergillus brasiliensis (refer to publication by Varga et al. ). This required an update to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and the European Pharmacopoeia , which commonly use this strain throughout the pharmaceutical industry. A. niger is a strict aerobe; therefore, it requires oxygen to grow. The fungus can grow in
384-417: A range of environmental conditions; it can grow at temperatures ranging from 6 to 47 °C. As a mesophile, its optimal temperature range is 35-37 °C. It can tolerate pH ranging from 1.5 to 9.8. A. niger is xerophilic, meaning it can grow and reproduce in environments with very little water. It can also grow in humid conditions even tolerating environments with 90-100% relative humidity. The fungus
432-479: A rapidly necrotizing pneumonia with a potential to disseminate. The organism can be differentiated from other common mold infections based on the fact that it takes on a mold form both in the environment and in the host (unlike Candida albicans which is a dimorphic mold in the environment and a yeast in the body). Aspergillosis is the group of diseases caused by Aspergillus . The most common species among paranasal sinus infections associated with aspergillosis
480-472: A research organism for many years and was used by Guido Pontecorvo to demonstrate parasexuality in fungi. Recently, A. nidulans was one of the pioneering organisms to have its genome sequenced by researchers at the Broad Institute . As of 2008, a further seven Aspergillus species have had their genomes sequenced: the industrially useful A. niger (two strains), A. oryzae , and A. terreus , and
528-448: A sexual cycle, the overwhelming majority in nature are homothallic (self-fertilizing). This observation suggests Aspergillus species can generally maintain sex though little genetic variability is produced by homothallic self-fertilization. A. fumigatus , a heterothallic (outcrossing) fungus that occurs in areas with widely different climates and environments, also displays little genetic variability either within geographic regions or on
SECTION 10
#1732852727992576-678: A solid substrate with nutrients and minimal moisture to grow microorganisms. Nutrients such as nitrogen and carbon come from agricultural byproducts such as wheat bran, sugar pulp, rice husks, and corn flour. SSF gives better yield of microbe products and is more cost effective than SmF due to using agricultural byproducts. SSF is predominantly used over SmF. In SmF, microbes are grown in a liquid medium inside large aseptic fermentation vessels. These vessels are expensive pieces of equipment that provide more water for growth and allow for tight control of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH, that affects microbial growth. Aspergillus niger
624-452: A tolerance to changes in pH , humidity , and heat, thriving in a temperature range from 15 to 53 °C (59 to 127 °F). These characteristics make infections of A. niger a common cause of post-harvest decay in fruits and vegetables, which can lead to significant economic loss in the food industry. A. niger infection in plants can cause a reduction in seed germination, seedling emergence, root elongation, and shoot elongation, causing
672-495: A wide variety of secondary metabolites, some of which are mycotoxins called ochratoxins , such as ochratoxin A . Contamination by filamentous fungi, such as A. niger, occurs frequently in grapes and grape based products resulting in contamination by ochratoxin A (OTA). OTA, a clinically relevant mycotoxin, can accumulate in human tissue and cause a variety of serious health conditions. Potential consequences of OTA poisoning include kidney damage, kidney failure and cancer but
720-493: Is A. fumigatus . The symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain, or breathlessness, which also occur in many other illnesses, so diagnosis can be difficult. Usually, only patients with already weakened immune systems or who suffer other lung conditions are susceptible. In humans, the major forms of disease are: Fungal infections from Aspergillus spores remain one theory of sickness and untimely death of some early Egyptologists and tomb explorers. Ancient spores which grew on
768-455: Is also cultured for the extraction of the enzyme, glucose oxidase ( P13006 ), used in the design of glucose biosensors , due to its high affinity for β-D-glucose . In the food industry, A. niger is also cultured to isolate the enzyme fructosyltransferase to produce fructooligosaccharides (FOS) . FOS are used to manufacture low-calorie and functional foods due to FOS characteristic ability to slow growth of pathogenic microorganisms in
816-595: Is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration for use in food production, although the microbe is capable of producing toxins that affect human health. Aspergillus niger is included in Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati , section Nigri . The section Nigri includes 15 related black-spored species that may be confused with A. niger , including A. tubingensis , A. foetidus , A. carbonarius , and A. awamori . In 2004,
864-544: Is cultured to facilitate the industrial production of many substances. Various strains of A. niger are used in the industrial preparation of citric acid (E330) and gluconic acid (E574); therefore, they have been deemed acceptable for daily intake by the World Health Organization . A. niger fermentation is "generally recognized as safe" ( GRAS ) by the United States Food and Drug Administration under
912-453: Is currently divided into six subgenera of which many are further split into a total of 27 sections . Aspergillus is defined as a group of conidial fungi—that is, fungi in an asexual state. Some of them, however, are known to have a teleomorph (sexual state) in the Ascomycota . With DNA evidence, all members of the genus Aspergillus are members of the phylum Ascomycota . Members of
960-627: Is most commonly grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA), but it can grow on many different types of growth media including Czapek-Dox agar, lignocellulose agar, and several others. Aspergillus niger has a genome consisting of roughly 34 megabases (Mb) organized into eight chromosomes . The DNA contains 10,785 genes which are transcribed and translated into 10,593 proteins . Two strains of A. niger have been sequenced. Strain CBS 513.88 produces enzymes used in industrial applications while strain ATCC 1015
1008-519: Is not listed in Species Fungorum. Aspergillus niger Aspergillus niger var. niger Aspergillopsis nigra (Tiegh.) Speg. Rhopalocystis nigra (Tiegh.) Grove Sterigmatocystis nigra (Tiegh.) Sacc. (1877) Aspergillus niger is a mold classified within the Nigri section of
SECTION 20
#17328527279921056-742: Is of intermediate size at 33.9 Mb. Some Aspergillus species cause serious disease in humans and animals. The most common pathogenic species are A. fumigatus and A. flavus , which produces aflatoxin which is both a toxin and a carcinogen, and which can contaminate foods such as nuts. The most common species causing allergic disease are A. fumigatus and A. clavatus . Other species are important as agricultural pathogens. Aspergillus spp. cause disease on many grain crops, especially maize , and some variants synthesize mycotoxins , including aflatoxin. Aspergillus can cause neonatal infections . A. fumigatus (the most common species) infections are primary pulmonary infections and can potentially become
1104-470: Is rarely grown on a solid substrate, although this is still common practice in Japan, but is more often grown as a submerged culture in a bioreactor . In this way, the most important parameters can be strictly controlled, and maximal productivity can be achieved. This process also makes it far easier to separate the chemical or enzyme of importance from the medium, and is therefore far more cost-effective. A. nidulans ( Emericella nidulans ) has been used as
1152-498: Is the wildtype strain of ATCC 11414 used to produce industrial citric acid (CA). The A. niger ATCC 1015 genome was sequenced by the Joint Genome Institute in a collaboration with other institutions. Completed sequences have been used to uncover orthologous genes and pathways involved in fungal metabolism, specifically the catabolism of monosaccharides. The ability of A. niger to change its metabolism depending on
1200-491: Is the major producer of carcinogenic aflatoxins in crops worldwide. It is also an opportunistic human and animal pathogen , causing aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals. In 2009, a sexual state of this heterothallic fungus was found to arise when strains of opposite mating types were cultured together under appropriate conditions. A. lentulus is an opportunistic human pathogen that causes invasive aspergillosis with high mortality rates . In 2013, A. lentulus
1248-483: Is used in the production of high-fructose corn syrup and pectinases ( GH28 ) are used in cider and wine clarification . Alpha-galactosidase ( GH27 ), an enzyme that breaks down certain complex sugars, is a component of Beano and several other products that decrease flatulence . Another use for A. niger within the biotechnology industry is in the production of magnetic isotope-containing variants of biological macromolecules for NMR analysis. Aspergillus niger
1296-400: The Aspergillus genus. The Aspergillus genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on decomposing matter, and suspended in the air. Species within this genus often grow quickly and can sporulate within a few days of germination . A combination of characteristics unique to A. niger makes the microbe invaluable to
1344-508: The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act . A. niger is also being considered as a potential new source of natural food grade pigments. The production of citric acid (CA) is achieved by growing strains of A. niger in a nutrient rich medium that includes high concentrations of sugar and mineral salts and an acidic pH of 2.5-3.5. Many microorganisms produce CA, but Aspergillus niger produces more than 1 million metric tons of CA annually via
1392-460: The immuno-compromised become sick with aspergillosis . List of Aspergillus species List of fungus species in the genus Aspergillus . The genus Aspergillus includes several hundred fungus species . As of August 2023, there are 817 different combinations including synonyms as acknowledged by Species Fungorum , representing 592 accepted species; In the list below, if no author/authors (or published date) mentioned then it
1440-519: The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not set maximum permissible levels of OTA in food unlike the EU that set maximum permissible levels in a variety of food products. Aspergillus niger can cause black mold infections in certain legumes , fruits, and vegetables such as peanuts, grapes, and onions, leading to the fungus being a common food contaminant. This filamentous ascomycete has
1488-466: The approximated 180 species of aspergillus molds, roughly 40 species have been found to cause health concern in immunocompromised humans. Aspergillosis is particularly frequent among horticultural workers who often inhale peat dust, which can be rich in Aspergillus niger spores. The fungus has also been found in ancient Egyptian mummies and can be inhaled when they are disturbed. Otomycosis , which
Aspergillus - Misplaced Pages Continue
1536-435: The carbon sources and other nutrients present in its environment has enabled the microorganism to survive and be found in almost all ecosystems . Further research is being done to study these mechanisms for all fungi using the complete sequenced genome of A. niger . There are two ways in which Aspergillus niger can be grown for industrial purposes: solid state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF). SSF uses
1584-434: The combination of segmental duplication, genome duplication, and horizontal gene transfer acting in a piecemeal fashion is well-supported. Genome sizes for sequenced species of Aspergillus range from about 29.3 Mb for A. fumigatus to 37.1 Mb for A. oryzae , while the numbers of predicted genes vary from about 9926 for A. fumigatus to about 12,071 for A. oryzae . The genome size of an enzyme-producing strain of A. niger
1632-462: The genus Saccharomyces , cannot ferment these starches. Therefore, koji mold such as Aspergillus oryzae is used to first break down the starches into simpler sugars. Members of the genus are also sources of natural products that can be used in the development of medications to treat human disease. Aspergillus spp. are known to produce anthraquinone which has commercial importance due to its antibacterial and antifungal properties. Perhaps
1680-486: The genus accordingly. Aspergillum is an asexual spore-forming structure common to all Aspergillus species; around one-third of species are also known to have a sexual stage. While some species of Aspergillus are known to cause fungal infections, others are of commercial importance. In March 2010, Aspergillus covered 837 species of fungi. Notable species placed in Aspergillus include: The expansive genus Aspergillus
1728-777: The genus possess the ability to grow where a high osmotic pressure exists (high concentration of sugar, salt, etc.). Aspergillus species are highly aerobic and are found in almost all oxygen-rich environments, where they commonly grow as molds on the surface of a substrate, as a result of the high oxygen tension. Commonly, fungi grow on carbon-rich substrates like monosaccharides (such as glucose ) and polysaccharides (such as amylose ). Aspergillus species are common contaminants of starchy foods (such as bread and potatoes), and grow in or on many plants and trees. In addition to growth on carbon sources, many species of Aspergillus demonstrate oligotrophy where they are capable of growing in nutrient-depleted environments, or environments with
1776-425: The industrial production of citric acid . A. niger causes a disease known as "black mold" on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, apricots, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly found in indoor environments, where its black colonies can be confused with those of Stachybotrys (species of which have also been called "black mold"). A. niger
1824-413: The intestines. These foods have prebiotic fiber among other health promoting properties. A. niger is not the only organism to produce the enzyme fructosyltransferase, but it has been found to produce the enzyme at rates conducive to industrial production. A specific use of A. niger within the food industry is its capability to produce enzymes like carbohydrase and cellulase, which are commonly used in
1872-616: The investigated disease, and others have been known as names already in use for organisms such as saprophytes . More than 60 Aspergillus species are medically relevant pathogens. For humans, a range of diseases such as infection to the external ear, skin lesions, and ulcers classed as mycetomas are found. Other species are important in commercial microbial fermentations. For example, alcoholic beverages such as Japanese sake are often made from rice or other starchy ingredients (like manioc ), rather than from grapes or malted barley. Typical microorganisms used to make alcohol, such as yeasts of
1920-403: The largest application of Aspergillus niger is as the major source of citric acid ; this organism accounts for over 99% of global citric acid production, or more than 1.4 million tonnes (>1.5 million US tons) per year. A. niger is also commonly used for the production of native and foreign enzymes , including glucose oxidase , lysozyme , and lactase . In these instances, the culture
1968-744: The pathogens A. clavatus , A. fischerianus ( Neosartorya fischeri ), A. flavus , and A. fumigatus (two strains). A. fischerianus is hardly ever pathogenic, but is very closely related to the common pathogen A. fumigatus ; it was sequenced in part to better understand A. fumigatus pathogenicity. Of the 250 species of aspergilli, about 64% have no known sexual state. However, many of these species likely have an as yet unidentified sexual stage. Sexual reproduction occurs in two fundamentally different ways in fungi. These are outcrossing (in heterothallic fungi) in which two different individuals contribute nuclei, and self-fertilization or selfing (in homothallic fungi) in which both nuclei are derived from
Aspergillus - Misplaced Pages Continue
2016-766: The plant to perish before maturation. Specifically, Aspergillus niger causes sooty mold on onions and ornamental plants. A. niger is pathogenic. Aspergillosis is a fungal infection caused by spores of indoor and outdoor Aspergillus mold species. Due to the ubiquitous nature of A. niger , its spores are commonly inhaled by humans from their surrounding environment. Aspergillosis infection customarily occurs in people with compromised immune systems or pre-existing lung conditions like asthma and cystic fibrosis . Types of aspergillosis include allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), allergic aspergillus sinusitis, azole-resistant aspergillus fumigatus, cutaneous (skin) aspergillosis, and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Out of
2064-403: The production of many acids, proteins and bioactive compounds. Characteristics including extensive metabolic diversity, high production yield, secretion capability, and the ability to conduct post-translational modifications are responsible for A. niger's robust production of secondary metabolites. A. niger's capability to withstand extremely acidic conditions makes it especially important to
2112-419: The remains of food offerings and mummies sealed in tombs and chambers may have been blown around and inhaled by the excavators, ultimately linked to the notion of the curse of the pharaohs . Aspergillosis of the air passages is also frequently reported in birds, and certain species of Aspergillus have been known to infect insects. Most people inhale Aspergillus into their lungs everyday, but generally only
2160-491: The same individual. In recent years, sexual cycles have been discovered in numerous species previously thought to be asexual. These discoveries reflect recent experimental focus on species of particular relevance to humans. A. fumigatus is the most common species to cause disease in immunodeficient humans. In 2009, A. fumigatus was shown to have a heterothallic, fully functional sexual cycle. Isolates of complementary mating types are required for sex to occur. A. flavus
2208-507: The seafood industry for removing the bellies of clams during processing and removing the tough external skin of shrimp from their edible internal tissue. Aspergillus niger can grow in gold-mining solutions containing cyano-metal complexes with gold , silver , copper , iron, and zinc . The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy-metal sulfides. A. niger has also been shown to remediate acid mine drainage through biosorption of copper and manganese. A. niger produces
2256-533: Was found to have a heterothallic functional sexual breeding system. A. terreus is commonly used in industry to produce important organic acids and enzymes, and was the initial source for the cholesterol-lowering drug lovastatin . In 2013, A. terreus was found to be capable of sexual reproduction when strains of opposite mating types were crossed under appropriate culture conditions. These findings with Aspergillus species are consistent with accumulating evidence, from studies of other eukaryotic species, that sex
2304-443: Was likely present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes . A. nidulans , a homothallic fungus, is capable of self-fertilization. Selfing involves activation of the same mating pathways characteristic of sex in outcrossing species, i.e. self-fertilization does not bypass required pathways for outcrossing sex, but instead requires activation of these pathways within a single individual. Among those Aspergillus species that exhibit
#991008