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Cold-weather warfare

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97-435: Cold-weather warfare , also known as cold-region warfare , arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions , or cold, both on land and at sea, as well as the strategies and tactics used by military forces in these situations and environments. Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or latitudes, and elsewhere materialize seasonally during

194-445: A military plan to resolve the situation in the state or actor's favor. Operations may be of a combat or non-combat nature and may be referred to by a code name for the purpose of national security . Military operations are often known for their more generally accepted common usage names than their actual operational objectives . Military operations can be classified by the scale and scope of force employment, and their impact on

291-476: A plague killed about 20,000 (36 percent) of the population. After the end of the Great Northern War the city stagnated; population growth halted and economic growth slowed. The city was in shock after having lost its place as the capital of a great power . However, Stockholm maintained its role as Sweden's political centre and continued to develop as the country's economic and cultural capital. During

388-670: A decisive factor in the failure of a campaign, as with the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939, and the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II . Northern and Eastern Europe were the venues for some well-documented winter campaigns. During World War II several actions took place above the Arctic Circle. Recent cold-weather conflicts have occurred in

485-727: A history going back to the conservatory founded as part of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music in 1771, the Royal University College of Fine Arts , which has a similar historical association with the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and a foundation date of 1735, and the Swedish National Academy of Mime and Acting , which is the continuation of the school of the Royal Dramatic Theatre , once attended by renowned actors like Greta Garbo . Other schools include

582-465: A major European power, reflected in the development of the city of Stockholm. From 1610 to 1680 the population multiplied sixfold. In 1634, Stockholm became the official capital of the Swedish empire. Trading rules were also created that gave Stockholm an essential monopoly over trade between foreign merchants and other Swedish, Baltic and Scandinavian territories. In 1697, Tre Kronor Castle burned down and

679-510: A modern and ethnically diverse city in the latter half of the 20th century. Many historical buildings were torn down during the modernist era, including substantial parts of the historical district of Klara (which caused major controversy), and replaced with modern architecture. However, in many other parts of Stockholm (such as in Gamla stan , Södermalm , Östermalm , Kungsholmen and Vasastan ), many older buildings, blocks and streets built before

776-459: A result of this massive population growth, there has been a proposal to build densely packed high-rise buildings in the city centre connected by elevated walkways, though these have been opposed by several groups. Stockholm is located on Sweden's east coast at the 59th parallel north, where the freshwater Lake Mälaren —Sweden's third-largest lake—flows out into the Baltic Sea. The central parts of

873-761: A scale unprecedented since the reign of Queen Christina . During this time, Carl Michael Bellman and Joseph Martin Kraus helped develop the city's music, a process further accelerated by the founding of the Royal Swedish Opera . Various artists and writers became prominent, funded by the king and other cultural patrons like Carl Gustaf Tessin ; the two aforementioned figures laid the base for Sweden's Nationalmuseum at this time. Science also became prevalent; renowned figures like Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius spent time in Stockholm, and various research institutes, like

970-875: A series of manuals that covered flight, engineer, and combat arms operations in winter. Issues covered included: In his 1981 paper, Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies , Chew draws on experiences from the Allied-Soviet War in Northern Russia during the Winter of 1918–19 , the destruction of the Soviet 44th Motorized Rifle Division, and Nazi–Soviet Warfare during World War II to derive winter warfare factors pertaining to military tactics , materiel and personnel : Operational factors encompass planning for

1067-559: A significant effect on military operations for one month or more each year." It describes regions that are either severely cold or moderately cold , each comprising approximately one quarter of the Earth's land mass. The manual also delineates the principal mountain ranges of the world, which lie along broad belts which encircle the Pacific basin and then lead westward across Eurasia into North Africa. Secondarily, rugged chains of mountains lie along

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1164-459: A similar latitude, or even farther south. With an average of 1900 hours of sunshine per year, it is also one of the sunniest cities in Northern Europe, receiving more sunshine than Paris, London and a few other major European cities of a more southerly latitude. Because of the urban heat island effect and the prevailing wind travelling overland rather than sea during summer months, Stockholm has

1261-645: A sudden thaw caused a bridge to collapse over the River Weaver, splitting Royalist cavalry forces at the Battle of Nantwich resulting in their defeat. The 1557 Siege of Katsurayama was fought between the forces of the Japanese daimyō Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin as part of the Kawanakajima campaigns . Katsurayama castle was a strategically vital Uesugi stronghold in the contested Shinano Province and, when it

1358-664: A third of the country's GDP , and is among the top 10 regions in Europe by GDP per capita . Considered a global city , it is the largest in Scandinavia and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europe's top-ranking universities, such as the Karolinska Institute (medicine), KTH Royal Institute of Technology , Stockholm School of Economics and Stockholm University . It hosts

1455-570: Is Sweden's primary financial centre , one of the largest in Scandinavia, and hosts several of Sweden's largest companies. Furthermore, the headquarters of most of Sweden's largest banks are in Stockholm. Stockholm is one of Europe's major tech centres; the city has sometimes been called Europe's innovation hub. The Stockholm region has a GDP of around $ 180 billion, and Stockholm County has the highest GDP per capita of all counties in Sweden . Stockholm

1552-527: Is also responsible for financial administration and long-term development. The City Executive Board consists of 13 members, who represent both the majority and the opposition. Its meetings are not open to the public. Stockholm City Hall is one of the city's key landmarks, built in the National Romantic Style at the beginning of the twentieth century. Hosting the Nobel Prizes and the government of

1649-717: Is an administrative unit defined by geographical borders. The semi-official name for the municipality is City of Stockholm ( Stockholms stad in Swedish). As a municipality, the City of Stockholm is subdivided into district councils, which carry responsibility for primary schools, social, leisure and cultural services within their respective areas. The municipality is usually described in terms of its three main parts: Innerstaden ( Stockholm City Centre ), Söderort (Southern Stockholm) and Västerort (Western Stockholm). The districts of these parts are: The modern centre Norrmalm (concentrated around

1746-563: Is based on export-oriented services, often towards larger, nearby European markets like Poland or Germany. Tourism is a major industry in Stockholm. Research and higher education in the sciences started in Stockholm in the 18th century, with education in medicine and various research institutions such as the Stockholm Observatory . The medical education was eventually formalised in 1811 as Karolinska Institutet . KTH Royal Institute of Technology ( Swedish: Kungliga Tekniska högskolan )

1843-513: Is projected to reach 1,079,213 by 2030. Of the inhabitants, 482,982 were men and 492,569 women. The average age is 39 years; 40.1% of the population is between 20 and 44 years. The marimonial statistics are that 411,273 people, or 42.2% of the population, over the age 15 were unmarried; 268,291 people, or 27.5% of the population, were married; and 104,099 or 10.7% of the population, had been married but divorced. As of December 2021, there were 252,750 foreign-born people in Stockholm, making up 25.8% of

1940-525: Is the name of the local assembly. Its 101 councillors are elected concurrently with general elections , held at the same time as the elections to the Riksdag and county councils . The Council convenes twice every month at Stockholm City Hall , and the meetings are open to the public. The matters on which the councillors decide have generally already been drafted and discussed by various boards and committees. Once decisions are referred for practical implementation,

2037-721: Is the official residence and principal workplace of the Swedish monarch, while Drottningholm Palace in neighbouring Ekerö serves as the Royal Family 's private residence. Stockholm's location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit , and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne . Birka , located near Stockholm, was one Sweden's major trade centres during the Viking Age , and its restored remains are one of Stockholm County 's most-visited sites. The earliest written mention of

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2134-739: Is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies , including the highest courts in the judiciary , and the official residences of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister . The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag (Swedish parliament) is seated in the Parliament House , and the Prime Minister's residence is adjacent at the Sager House . Stockholm Palace

2231-434: Is ultimately the mission that a unit performs that determines the level of war within which it operates. The operational level of war occupies roughly the middle ground between the campaign's strategic focus and the tactics of an engagement. It describes "a distinct intermediate level of war between military strategy , governing war in general, and tactics, involving individual battles". For example, during World War II ,

2328-456: The Age of Enlightenment in the late eighteenth century, the city flourished. The new monarch, Gustav III , proved an able and energetic regnant; his economic policies helped the Swedish economy develop, and his partially successful war against Russia restored some of Sweden's international reputation. The king was an avid patron of the arts, and scientists and cultural figures flocked to Stockholm on

2425-644: The Aleutian Islands in Alaska during World War II. The Battle of Chosin Reservoir was a stark example of cold affecting military operations in the Korean War . There were many cold injuries and malfunctions of materiel , both vehicles and weapons. The Sino-Indian War was a Himalayan border conflict between China and India that occurred in 1962. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along

2522-600: The Baltic Sea . Outside the city to the east, and along the coast, is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago . The area has been settled since the Stone Age , in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl . The city serves as the county seat of Stockholm County . Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over

2619-506: The Battle of Sarikamish , Ottoman troops were unprepared for winter fighting and suffered major losses, with 25,000 freezing to death before the battle even began. On the Italian front , fighting bogged down in trench warfare but at mountain elevations. On White Friday , thousands of troops from both sides were killed in avalanches in the Dolomites. The Finnish Army used ski troops during

2716-630: The Hanseatic League . Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck , Hamburg , Gdańsk (Danzig), Visby , Tallinn (Reval), and Riga during this time. The strategic and economic importance of the city made Stockholm an important factor in relations between the Danish Kings of the Kalmar Union and the Swedish national independence movement in the fifteenth century and early sixteenth century. The Danish King Christian II

2813-742: The Petsamo-Kirkenes Operation conducted by the Soviet Army against the Wehrmacht in 1944 in northern Finland and Norway drove the Germans out. In late 1944, Finland turned against its former cobelligerents of Nazi Germany under Soviet pressure and pressured the Germans to withdraw in the ensuing Lapland War . While use of ski infantry was common in the Soviet Army, Germany formed only one division for movement on skis. From June 1942 to August 1943,

2910-493: The Stockholm Observatory , were founded. The early nineteenth century saw a major economic decline of Stockholm and Sweden as a whole, but by the second half of the nineteenth century, Stockholm had regained its leading economic role. New industries emerged with industrialisation and Stockholm was transformed into an important trade and service centre as well as a key gateway point within Sweden. The population also grew dramatically during this time, mainly through immigration . At

3007-514: The Swedish Museum of Natural History , as well as the botanical garden Bergianska trädgården . The Stockholm School of Economics , founded in 1909, is one of the few private institutions of higher education in Sweden, and is generally reckoned one of the most prestigious business schools in the world. In the fine arts , educational institutions include the Royal College of Music , which has

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3104-564: The Winter War and the Second World War in which the numerically-superior but road-bound Soviet forces were vulnerable to attack by mobile, white-clad ski troops, approaching from untracked, frozen terrain. The Wehrmacht maintained elite mountain troops, Gebirgsjäger . They were organized in small, specialized units, which relied on pack animals. Typical weapons were light machine guns, mortars, and anti-tank guns. Control of ridge lines

3201-495: The 16th century. In 1625, the Great Stockholm Fire of 1625 destroyed the southwestern section of Stadsholmen , an island in the centre of Stockholm. The amount of destruction led to the beginning of the demolition of the Stockholm walls. Today, most of the younger city walls cannot be found anywhere above ground. However, parts of the northern city walls are preserved in the modern Museum of Medieval Stockholm . In 1710,

3298-586: The 1982 Falklands War . The Siachen conflict is a military confrontation between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir . The conflict began in 1984 with India's successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003. Paton offered a 2001 overview of human factors pertaining to cold in military operations. The understanding of cold injuries evolved in

3395-527: The 19th and 20th centuries; understanding of the causes and treatment of frostbite and trench foot improved. In the Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese learned the importance of foot care, keeping feet dry and warm with replacement socks. In World War I, doctors realized that trench foot was a prolonged exposure to cold, wet conditions on the feet, which were exacerbated by the use of tight puttees, bandage-like leg wrappings. The Soviet invasion of Finland during

3492-512: The Atlantic margins of the Americas and Europe. Temperature, wind, snow, and thaw are the primary conditions that affect the winter battlescape. The U.S. Army groups cold temperatures using categories. The temperature categories are (with quoted summaries): The combined cooling effect of ambient temperature and wind ( wind chill ) is an important factor that affects troops. For military purposes,

3589-686: The City Executive Board. The Mayor holds a special position among the Vice Mayors, chairing both the Council of Mayors and the City Executive Board. The City Executive Board ( Swedish : Kommunstyrelsen ) is elected by the City Council and is equivalent to a cabinet . The City Executive Board renders an opinion in all matters decided by the council and bears the overall responsibility for follow-up, evaluation and execution of its decisions. The Board

3686-601: The European Union. The Stockholm Stock Exchange , founded in 1863, is the largest stock exchange in the Nordic Countries measured by market capitalisation, listing numerous multinational Swedish companies. Trade is a vital part of Stockholm's economy; the city's corporations are largely reliant on foreign consumers to supplement the small Swedish market. Stockholm is one of the Baltic Sea's larger ports, hosting especially cruise ships and yachts. Most of Stockholm's economy

3783-674: The Finns, it was at the cost of 200,000 fatalities against 25,000 on the Finnish side. The German invasion of the Soviet Union induced more than 250,000 cold injuries in one year. The French Army occupying the Maginot Line experienced 12,000 cold injuries. Experiences from the disastrous 1941 German advance on Moscow in winter conditions led to the 1942 Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg ("Pocket book for Winter War"), which highlighted ideal approaches to handling winter, but acknowledged that improvisation in

3880-617: The Himalayas. In 1242, the Teutonic Order lost the Battle on the Ice on Lake Peipus to Novgorod. In 1520, the decisive Battle of Bogesund between Sweden and Denmark occurred on the ice of lake Åsunden . In 1643 or 1644, Prince Rupert made an abortive attack on the Parliamentarian stronghold of Aylesbury England. 500 men are reported to have frozen to death on 21 January. On 25 January

3977-569: The U.S. Army categorizes snow as light, moderate, or heavy. Each classification affects visibility and ground movement due to accumulation and is quoted below: Snow and snowdrifts can create advantages on the battlefield by filling in ditches and vehicle tracks and flattening the terrain. It also creates hollows on the downwind side of obstacles, such as trees, buildings, and bushes, which provide observation points or firing positions. Snowdrifts may provide cover for soldiers to approach an objective. Soviet Army doctrine cited 30 centimetres (12 in) as

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4074-790: The United States and Canada fought the Japanese in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in the Alaska Territory . The following actions were fought in the Arctic by land and naval forces in World War II between 1941 and 1945 in the following theaters of operations: Finland – The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union (USSR) and Finland . It began with a Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, three months after

4171-464: The Winter War showed the power of asymmetric warfare on the Finnish side, where small units were able to cut the road-bound Soviet invading troops into segments, like firewood, and vanquish each segment. The small units arrived silently on skis or with light artillery pulled by reindeer over frozen, untracked terrain, using winter conditions as an advantage. Although the Soviet Union gained territory from

4268-605: The annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall . One of the city's most prized museums, the Vasa Museum , is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro , opened in 1950, is well known for the decor of its stations; it has been called the longest art gallery in the world. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics , and has played host to several other international sports events since. Stockholm

4365-522: The autumn of 1812 and also the German attempt to take Moscow in the autumn of 1941. The 1942 Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg acknowledges that neither tracked nor wheeled vehicles can maneuver during conditions of thaw and that aircraft operations must be constrained to concrete runways. It addresses minimizing the use of roads during this period and dismantling bridges that are likely to be taken out by ice floes. It emphasizes how positions in frozen soil must be improved to avoid deterioration from thaw and

4462-568: The autumn the leaves change color. During the winter months, the trees lose their leaves. For details about the other municipalities in the Stockholm area, see the pertinent articles. North of Stockholm Municipality: Järfälla , Solna , Täby , Sollentuna , Lidingö , Upplands Väsby , Österåker , Sigtuna , Sundbyberg , Danderyd , Vallentuna , Ekerö , Upplands-Bro , Vaxholm , and Norrtälje . South of Stockholm: Huddinge , Nacka , Botkyrka , Haninge , Tyresö , Värmdö , Södertälje , Salem , Nykvarn and Nynäshamn . Stockholm Municipality

4559-472: The border in 1961. China launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theaters. Much of the fighting took place in harsh mountain conditions , entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,000 metres (14,000 feet). Many troops on both sides succumbed to the freezing cold temperatures. Argentine troops suffered from cold-wet conditions, holding positions in

4656-401: The city consist of fourteen islands that are continuous with the Stockholm archipelago . The geographical city centre is situated on the water, in Riddarfjärden bay. Over 30% of the city area is made up of waterways and another 30% is made up of parks and green spaces. Positioned at the eastern end of the Central Swedish lowland and near the Bergslagen region, the city's location reflects

4753-402: The city is said to have been founded by Birger Jarl to protect Sweden from sea invasions made by Karelians after the pillage of Sigtuna on Lake Mälaren in the summer of 1187. Stockholm's core, the present Old Town ( Gamla Stan ) was built on the central island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid-13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of

4850-415: The city of Stockholm, it is one of Sweden's most important buildings. As the primary financial centre in Sweden, Stockholm is an influential hub for trade, finance and technology in Europe , and one of Scandinavia's largest financial centres. The Stockholm region is the leading region in Sweden by both GDP and GDP per capita, and is amongst the ten wealthiest regions in the European Union when measured by

4947-469: The climate and weather in which military operations are required with snow, ice, mud and cold being the primary considerations. Military tactics , materiel , combat engineering and military medicine all require specialized adaptations to the conditions encountered in cold weather. In its 2016 "Mountain Warfare and Cold Weather Operations" manual, the United States Army defines cold regions as "where cold temperatures, unique terrain, and snowfall have

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5044-498: The concept applied to use of Soviet Tank Armies . Stockholm Stockholm ( Swedish: [ˈstɔ̂kː(h)ɔlm] ) is the capital and most populous city of the Kingdom of Sweden , as well as the largest urban area in the Nordic countries . Approximately 1 million people live in the municipality , with 1.6 million in the urban area , and 2.4 million in the metropolitan area . The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Mälaren flows into

5141-415: The current municipal area. In the ensuing decades several other areas were incorporated (such as Brännkyrka Municipality in 1913, at which time it had 25,000 inhabitants, and Spånga in 1949). The municipal border was established in 1971; with the exception of Hansta, in 1982 purchased by Stockholm Municipality from Sollentuna Municipality and today a nature reserve. The population was 984,748 in 2022 and

5238-418: The design school Konstfack , founded in 1844, the University College of Opera (founded in 1968 but with older roots), the University College of Dance , and the Stockholms Musikpedagogiska Institut (the University College of Music Education). The Södertörn University was founded in 1995 as a multi-disciplinary institution for southern Metropolitan Stockholm , to balance the many institutions located in

5335-473: The early orientation of Swedish trade toward the Baltic region. Stockholm belongs to the Temperate deciduous forest biome, which means the climate is very similar to that of the far northeastern area of the United States and coastal Nova Scotia in Canada . The average annual temperature is 7.9 °C (46 °F). The average rainfall is 531 mm (21 in) per year. The deciduous forest has four distinct seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In

5432-447: The employees of the City administrations and companies take over. The elected majority has a Mayor and eight Vice Mayors. The Mayor and each majority Vice Mayor is the head of a department, with responsibility for a particular area of operation, such as City Planning. The opposition also has four Vice Mayors, but they hold no executive power. Together the Mayor and the 12 Vice Mayors form the Council of Mayors, and they prepare matters for

5529-433: The end of the nineteenth century, less than 40% of the residents were Stockholm-born, with most migrants being from poorer rural Sweden; major settlement began to expand outside the historical city limits. The nineteenth century also saw the establishment of a number of scientific institutes and universities, including the Karolinska Institutet and KTH Royal Institute of Technology . The General Art and Industrial Exposition

5626-524: The enemy. The threat of Finnish snipers, whom the Russians called "cuckoos", further demoralized the Soviets. The Finns mined ice routes over lakes to sink Soviet equipment. The Lapland War was fought between Finland and Germany from September 1944 to April 1945 in Finland's northernmost Lapland Province . It included: Norway – The liberation of Finnmark was a military operation, lasting from 23 October 1944 until 26 April 1945, in which Soviet and Norwegian forces wrestled away control of Finnmark ,

5723-421: The face of winter with the majority of the French army succumbing to frostbite and starvation, rather than combat injuries. The Battle of Weihaiwei was a battle of the First Sino-Japanese War in the winter of 1895 in Weihai , Shandong, China between the forces of the Japan and Qing China . Through a well coordinated offensive of both naval and land forces, hampered by snow and cold, the Japanese destroyed

5820-416: The field would be necessary when supplies were lacking. The Soviet troops in that period had felt-lined boots and quilted uniforms, but the Germans continued fighting in their summer uniforms. The Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg manual contains sections on the influence and duration of winter, the seasons of mud and thaw, preparation for winter warfare, winter combat methods and maintaining morale, including

5917-413: The forts on shore and sank much of the Chinese fleet. During the First World War , soldiers on the Western front involved in trench warfare were forced to deal with freezing conditions, trench foot , frostbite, and disease. The winter of 1916-17 was exceptionally cold, which caused great hardship and deaths among the soldiers. Equipment and vehicles also were not suited for the freezing conditions. At

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6014-507: The ice of the Belts to besiege Copenhagen . The war ended with the treaty of Roskilde , a treaty very favorable to the Swedish. During the Great Northern War , Swedish king Charles XII set off to invade Moscow, but was eventually defeated at the Battle of Poltava after being weakened by cold weather and scorched earth tactics. Sweden suffered more casualties during the same war as Carl Gustaf Armfeldt with 6,000 men tried to invade Trondheim . Three thousand of them died of exposure in

6111-458: The lack of student accommodations, the difficulty in finding other accommodations and the high rent. The Stockholm region is home to around 22% of Sweden's total population, and accounts for about 29% of its gross domestic product . The geographical notion of "Stockholm" has changed over time. By the turn of the 19th century, Stockholm largely consisted of the area today known as City Centre, roughly 35 km (14 sq mi) or one-fifth of

6208-399: The largest investment firms in Europe are headquartered in the city, including Investor AB and Nordstjernan ; also headquartered in Stockholm is EQT AB . Stockholm is one of continental Europe's leading hubs for the technology industry; this influential industry is based in Kista , a suburb in northern Stockholm which is Europe's largest Informations and Technology cluster. Stockholm has

6305-513: The latter. Many of Sweden's largest companies are headquartered in the city; they are drawn by its central location, skilled workforce and preeminent financial sector. These companies include some of the Nordic region 's most valuable corporations, like Ericsson , which is one of the world's largest telecommunications companies, or Atlas Copco , which is one of the world's largest industrial companies; other large companies based in Stockholm include Electrolux , H&M and Securitas AB . Some of

6402-404: The modernism and functionalism movements survived this era of demolition. Throughout the century, many industries shifted away from industrial activities into more high-tech and service industry areas, which still dominate the city's economy today. Stockholm's metropolitan area has become one of the fastest-growing regions in Europe. In 2020 alone, Stockholm's population increased by 1,477. As

6499-435: The most precipitation falling in December and January (as either rain or snow). The average winter temperatures range from −3 to −1 °C (27 to 30 °F), and occasionally drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) in the outskirts of the city. Spring and autumn are generally cool to mild. The climate table below presents weather data from the years 1991–2020. According to ongoing measurements, the temperature has increased during

6596-437: The name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name ( stock ) means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word ( Stock ) meaning fortification . The second part of the name ( holm ) means islet and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. According to Erik's Chronicle

6693-400: The necessity of changing uniforms from ones for cold to those for wet conditions. The dominant tactical concern in cold conditions is the ability to maneuver in vehicles or on foot. Additionally, during winter, night operations become the norm at higher latitudes with their long periods of darkness. Snow enhances night vision because of high reflectivity and the visibility of combatants against

6790-482: The northern part of the region. Other institutes of higher education include the Military Academy Karlberg , the world's oldest military academy to remain in its original location, inaugurated in 1792 and housed in Karlberg Palace ; there is also the Swedish Defence University , Ersta Sköndal University College , Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences and the University College Stockholm . The biggest complaints from students of higher education in Stockholm are

6887-441: The northernmost county of Norway, from Germany . It started with a major Soviet offensive that liberated Kirkenes . Northern Russia – Operation Silver Fox was a joint German –Finnish military operation offensive during World War II . It failed to achieve its main goal to cut off and ultimately capture the key Soviet port at Murmansk through attacks from Finnish and Norwegian territory. Spitsbergen – Operation Gauntlet

6984-473: The number of daylight hours is relatively small during winter – about six hours – while in June and the first half of July, the nights are relatively short, with about 18 hours of daylight. Due to its eastern position within Sweden's respective time zone, sunsets occur as early as 2:46 PM in mid-December. Around the summer solstice the sun never reaches further below the horizon than 7.3 degrees. This gives

7081-654: The outbreak of World War II , and ended three and a half months later with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. In the Battle of Suomussalmi , Finns leveraged cold weather to disadvantage the Soviet enemy troops by targeting field kitchens and campfires for their attacks, thereby denying those troops warmth and nutrition. The Finns rotated their troops so that they could regularly return to warm shelters to recuperate after an attack or patrol. Heavy Soviet equipment and their associated troops were restricted to roads, while Finnish ski troops had broad mobility to outflank

7178-520: The queen for several years prior to his death. Inventors, like Christopher Polhem , moved to the city during the time of the Swedish Empire. Academics also spent much time in Stockholm, like Olaus Rudbeck , rector of the Uppsala University . Throughout Sweden's history, walls were created in Stockholm to defend the city from attacks. These defensive walls were modified throughout the 13th to

7275-647: The second most unicorns per capita in the world, after Silicon Valley; the city also has one of the highest startup rates in Europe. Prominent startup technology companies in Stockholm include Mojang , Spotify and Klarna ; the latter two either have been or are among the largest startup companies in the world. Most of Sweden's largest banks are headquartered in the city, including the SEB Group , Handelsbanken and Swedbank ; Nordea had its headquarters in Stockholm until moving to Helsinki in 2018 for legal reasons involving

7372-488: The sky a bright blue colour in summer once the sun has set because it does not get any darker than nautical twilight . Also, when looking straight up towards the zenith , few stars are visible after the sun has gone down. This is not to be confused with the midnight sun , which occurs north of the Arctic Circle , around 7 degrees farther north. The Stockholm Municipal Council ( Swedish : Stockholms kommunfullmäktige )

7469-569: The snow during the Carolean Death March . During the Finnish War , the Russian army unexpectedly crossed the frozen Gulf of Bothnia from Finland to Åland and, by 19 March 1809, reached the Swedish shore within 70 kilometres (43 mi) from the Swedish capital, Stockholm . This daring maneuvre decided the outcome of the war. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 resulted in retreat in

7566-659: The threshold snow depth that impairs mobility for troops, cavalry and vehicles, except tanks for which the threshold was 50 centimetres (20 in). Thawing conditions can impair mobility and put soldiers at risk of trench foot by turning soil to mud; it can also weaken and break up ice cover on bodies of water. Maintaining roads becomes more difficult during spring-thaw run-off periods and requires mud removal by heavy equipment. Slushy and muddy ground causes clothing and equipment to become wet, damp and dirty. Muddy conditions greatly inhibited Napoleon's ability to maneuver in Russia in

7663-448: The town square Sergels torg ) is the largest shopping district in Sweden . It is the most central part of Stockholm in business and shopping. Stockholm has a humid continental climate in the 0 °C isotherm ( Köppen : Dfb ) bordering on an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) in the -3 °C isotherm. Although winters are cold, average temperatures generally remain above 0 °C for much of

7760-399: The use of reading material, lectures, movies, and "strength through joy" exercises. Other sections cover marches, the maintenance of roads, winter bivouacs and shelter, construction of winter positions, camouflage and concealment, identification of the enemy, clothing, rations, evacuation of the wounded, care and use of weapons and equipment, signal communication, and winter mobility. The manual

7857-861: The warmest July months of the Nordic capitals. Stockholm has an annual average snow cover between 75 and 100 days. Despite its mild climate, Stockholm is located further north than parts of Canada that are above the Arctic tree line at sea level. Summers average daytime high temperatures of 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) and lows of around 13 °C (55 °F), but temperatures can reach 30 °C (86 °F) on some days. Days above 30 °C (86 °F) occur on average 1.55 days per year (1992–2011). Days between 25 °C (77 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F) are relatively common especially in July and August. Night-time lows of above 20 °C (68 °F) are rare, and hot summer nights vary from 17 to 18 °C (63 to 64 °F). Winters generally bring cloudy weather with

7954-442: The white background. The German Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg emphasizes reconnaissance to ascertain the conditions and capacity of the roads to be used. It describes snow clearing from roads and recovery of bogged-down vehicles. Military operation A military operation ( op ) is the coordinated military actions of a state , or a non-state actor , in response to a developing situation. These actions are designed as

8051-423: The wider conflict. The scope of military operations can be: Parallel to and reflecting this framework for operations are organized elements within the armed forces which prepare for and conduct operations at various levels of war . While there is a general correlation between the size of units , the area within which they operate, and the scope of mission they perform, the correlation is not absolute. In fact, it

8148-557: The winter period. Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow, such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically, most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow, ice, and cold may occur throughout the year. At times, cold—or its aftermath, thaw—has been

8245-399: The year. Summers are pleasantly warm, and precipitation occurs throughout the year. Due to the city's high northerly latitude, the length of the day varies widely from more than 18 hours around midsummer to only around 6 hours in late December. The nights from late May until mid-July are not completely dark even when cloudy. Stockholm has relatively mild weather compared to other locations at

8342-453: The year. The precipitation is not uniformly distributed throughout the year. The second half of the year receives 50% more than the first half. Snowfall occurs mainly from December through March. Snowfall may occasionally occur in late October as well as in April. In Stockholm, the aurora borealis can occasionally be observed. Stockholm's location just south of the 60th parallel north means that

8439-501: The years 1991–2020 as compared with the last series, from 1961 to 1990. This increase averages about 1.0 °C (1.8 °F) over all months. Warming is most pronounced during the winter months, with an increase of more than 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) in January. For the 2002–2014 measurements some further increases have been found, although some months such as June have been relatively flat. The highest temperature ever recorded in Stockholm

8536-464: Was 36 °C (97 °F) on 3 July 1811; the lowest was −32 °C (−26 °F) on 20 January 1814. The temperature has not dropped to below −25.1 °C (−13.2 °F) since 10 January 1987. The warmest month ever recorded was July 2018 with a mean temperature of 22.5 °C (72.5 °F) which is also the nationwide record. Annual precipitation is 546.4 mm (21.51 in) with around 170 wet days and light to moderate rainfall throughout

8633-623: Was a Combined Operations raid by Canadian troops, with British Army logistics support and Free Norwegian Forces servicemen on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen , 600 miles (970 km) south of the North Pole, from 25 August to 3 September 1941. Operation Fritham was a Norwegian military operation , based from British soil, that had the goal of securing the rich coal mines on the island of Spitsbergen (a part of Svalbard ) and denying their use to Nazi Germany . Operation Zitronella (Citronella)

8730-587: Was able to enter the city in 1520 and on 8 November of that year, a massacre of opposition figures called the Stockholm Bloodbath took place and set off further uprisings that eventually led to the breakup of the Kalmar Union with the attainment of Swedish independence. With the accession of Gustav Vasa in 1523 and the establishment of royal power, the population of Stockholm began to grow, reaching 10,000 by 1600. The seventeenth century saw Sweden grow into

8827-556: Was an eight-hour German raid on Spitzbergen on 8 September 1943. This marks the highest latitude at which a land battle has ever been fought. However, given the extreme conditions, the German and Allied troops were at times compelled to assist each other to survive. United States – The Aleutian Islands Campaign was a campaign conducted by both the United States and Imperial Japan from 3 June 1942 to 15 August 1943 in Attu and Kiska , part of

8924-569: Was designed to provide information at the officer level for indoctrination of troops via the non-commissioned officer ranks. The scope of the manual is to train troops in the following areas: Some highlights include addressing: The Soviet Army learned from its 1939–40 Winter War experiences and the 1941 German advance on Moscow. The high command realized that it must prepare entire divisions for winter warfare in 1942, beginning with warm uniforms, winter equipment (skis, etc.), and training for winter operations. Analysis of previous experiences resulted in

9021-467: Was founded in 1827 and is Scandinavia's largest higher education institute of technology with 13,000 students; it is Sweden's foremost polytechnic, and spearheaded several governmental research projects in the twentieth century. Stockholm University , founded in 1878 with university status granted in 1960, has 52,000 students as of 2008 . It also incorporates historical institutions, such as the Observatory,

9118-540: Was held in 1897, drawing international attention. From 1887 to 1953 the Old Stockholm telephone tower was a landmark; originally built to link phone lines, it became redundant after these were buried, and it was later used for advertising before its demolition in the twentieth century. The early twentieth century also saw the creation of the Nobel Prizes , some of Stockholm's most renowned institutions. Stockholm became

9215-540: Was isolated from reinforcements due to late snow in early 1557, the Takeda clan used this opportunity to seize it under Baba Nobuharu , shielded from view by heavy snowfall. Sweden and Denmark fought several wars during the 16th and 17th centuries. As a great deal of Denmark consists of islands, it was usually safe from invasion, but in January 1658, most of the Danish waters froze. Charles X Gustav of Sweden led his army across

9312-485: Was paramount, using a limited number of outposts. They operated on the principles of fewer arms, but more ammunition per weapon and the economical use thereof. In Operation Barbarossa in 1941, both Russian and German soldiers had to endure terrible conditions during the Russian winter . The German-Finnish joint offensive against Murmansk (Operation Silver Fox) in 1941 saw heavy fighting in the Arctic environment. Subsequently,

9409-472: Was replaced eventually by Stockholm Palace ; the time of the Swedish Empire also saw several architectural modernisations of the city. The beginning of the Swedish Empire saw a renaissance in the arts and sciences; the new queen, Christina , was a strong supporter of science and culture. Réne Descartes , one of the most prominent European philosophers of his time, died in Stockholm; he had been hosted by

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