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64-533: Wildlife in the Wilderness includes Columbia spotted frog , mule deer , sharp-shinned hawk , golden eagle , Clark's nutcracker , sagebrush sparrow , sagebrush vole , black-throated gray warbler , yellow warbler , northern goshawk , big brown bat , and Great Basin skink . The Arc Dome Wilderness is administered by the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest . This article related to

128-455: A mutation (the deletion of two nucleotides ) that inactives it. These changes are explained by the fact that its prey does not need to be subdued. Several groups of predatory fish have the ability to detect, track, and sometimes, as in the electric ray , to incapacitate their prey by sensing and generating electric fields . The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue. Physiological adaptations to predation include

192-418: A better choice. If it chooses pursuit, its physical capabilities determine the mode of pursuit (e.g., ambush or chase). Having captured the prey, it may also need to expend energy handling it (e.g., killing it, removing any shell or spines, and ingesting it). Predators have a choice of search modes ranging from sit-and-wait to active or widely foraging . The sit-and-wait method is most suitable if

256-851: A broad range of taxa including arthropods. They are common among insects, including mantids, dragonflies , lacewings and scorpionflies . In some species such as the alderfly , only the larvae are predatory (the adults do not eat). Spiders are predatory, as well as other terrestrial invertebrates such as scorpions ; centipedes ; some mites , snails and slugs ; nematodes ; and planarian worms . In marine environments, most cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish , hydroids ), ctenophora (comb jellies), echinoderms (e.g., sea stars , sea urchins , sand dollars , and sea cucumbers ) and flatworms are predatory. Among crustaceans , lobsters , crabs , shrimps and barnacles are predators, and in turn crustaceans are preyed on by nearly all cephalopods (including octopuses , squid and cuttlefish ). Seed predation

320-582: A food trap, mechanical stimulation, and electrical impulses to eventually catch and consume its prey. Some carnivorous fungi catch nematodes using either active traps in the form of constricting rings, or passive traps with adhesive structures. Many species of protozoa ( eukaryotes ) and bacteria ( prokaryotes ) prey on other microorganisms; the feeding mode is evidently ancient, and evolved many times in both groups. Among freshwater and marine zooplankton , whether single-celled or multi-cellular, predatory grazing on phytoplankton and smaller zooplankton

384-471: A huge gulp of water and filtering it through their feathery baleen plates. Pursuit predators may be social , like the lion and wolf that hunt in groups, or solitary. Once the predator has captured the prey, it has to handle it: very carefully if the prey is dangerous to eat, such as if it possesses sharp or poisonous spines, as in many prey fish. Some catfish such as the Ictaluridae have spines on

448-725: A kill, and the coyote can be either solitary or social. Other solitary predators include the northern pike, wolf spiders and all the thousands of species of solitary wasps among arthropods, and many microorganisms and zooplankton . Under the pressure of natural selection , predators have evolved a variety of physical adaptations for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. These include speed, agility, stealth, sharp senses, claws, teeth, filters, and suitable digestive systems. For detecting prey , predators have well-developed vision , smell , or hearing . Predators as diverse as owls and jumping spiders have forward-facing eyes, providing accurate binocular vision over

512-539: A long distance, sometimes for hours at a time. The method is used by human hunter-gatherers and by canids such as African wild dogs and domestic hounds. The African wild dog is an extreme persistence predator, tiring out individual prey by following them for many miles at relatively low speed. A specialised form of pursuit predation is the lunge feeding of baleen whales . These very large marine predators feed on plankton , especially krill , diving and actively swimming into concentrations of plankton, and then taking

576-445: A patch and decide whether to spend time searching for prey in it. This may involve some knowledge of the preferences of the prey; for example, ladybirds can choose a patch of vegetation suitable for their aphid prey. To capture prey, predators have a spectrum of pursuit modes that range from overt chase ( pursuit predation ) to a sudden strike on nearby prey ( ambush predation ). Another strategy in between ambush and pursuit

640-425: A powerful selective effect on prey, and the prey develop antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration , alarm calls and other signals , camouflage , mimicry of well-defended species, and defensive spines and chemicals. Sometimes predator and prey find themselves in an evolutionary arms race , a cycle of adaptations and counter-adaptations. Predation has been a major driver of evolution since at least

704-785: A predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. This has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. Size may also act as a refuge for large prey. For example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable. Members of the cat family such as the snow leopard (treeless highlands), tiger (grassy plains, reed swamps), ocelot (forest), fishing cat (waterside thickets), and lion (open plains) are camouflaged with coloration and disruptive patterns suiting their habitats. In aggressive mimicry , certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. Female Photuris fireflies , for example, copy

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768-421: A preferred target is scarce. When prey have a clumped (uneven) distribution, the optimal strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly; this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey. In size-selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size. Large prey may prove troublesome for

832-467: A protected area in Nevada is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Nye County , Nevada state location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Columbia spotted frog Rana pretiosa luteiventris Thompson , 1913 The Columbia spotted frog ( Rana luteiventris ) is a North American species of frog . It is green to brown in color with spots on

896-820: A relatively narrow field of view, whereas prey animals often have less acute all-round vision. Animals such as foxes can smell their prey even when it is concealed under 2 feet (60 cm) of snow or earth. Many predators have acute hearing, and some such as echolocating bats hunt exclusively by active or passive use of sound. Predators including big cats , birds of prey , and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. Some predators such as snakes and fish-eating birds like herons and cormorants swallow their prey whole; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish-eating birds have long spear-like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast-moving and slippery prey. Fish and other predators have developed

960-478: A significant amount of energy, to locate each food patch. For example, the black-browed albatross regularly makes foraging flights to a range of around 700 kilometres (430 miles), up to a maximum foraging range of 3,000 kilometres (1,860 miles) for breeding birds gathering food for their young. With static prey, some predators can learn suitable patch locations and return to them at intervals to feed. The optimal foraging strategy for search has been modelled using

1024-406: A small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range. Many smaller predators such as the box jellyfish use venom to subdue their prey, and venom can also aid in digestion (as is the case for rattlesnakes and some spiders ). The marbled sea snake that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains

1088-523: A smaller area. For example, when mixed flocks of birds forage, the birds in front flush out insects that are caught by the birds behind. Spinner dolphins form a circle around a school of fish and move inwards, concentrating the fish by a factor of 200. By hunting socially chimpanzees can catch colobus monkeys that would readily escape an individual hunter, while cooperating Harris hawks can trap rabbits. Predators of different species sometimes cooperate to catch prey. In coral reefs , when fish such as

1152-440: A variety of defences including the ability to hear the echolocation calls. Many pursuit predators that run on land, such as wolves, have evolved long limbs in response to the increased speed of their prey. Their adaptations have been characterized as an evolutionary arms race , an example of the coevolution of two species. In a gene centered view of evolution , the genes of predator and prey can be thought of as competing for

1216-408: A variety of plants, and other smaller, water-dwelling organisms. Predation Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator , kills and eats another organism, its prey . It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill the host ) and parasitoidism (which always does, eventually). It

1280-477: Is ballistic interception , where a predator observes and predicts a prey's motion and then launches its attack accordingly. Ambush or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture prey by stealth or surprise. In animals, ambush predation is characterized by the predator's scanning the environment from a concealed position until a prey is spotted, and then rapidly executing a fixed surprise attack. Vertebrate ambush predators include frogs, fish such as

1344-423: Is a medium-sized frog reaching lengths of up to 3.5 in (90 mm). Its color ranges from a dark, olive green to light brown with irregularly shaped black spots on its back and legs (rendering its name). Its skin texture, like the rest of the genus, varies from a rough to a smooth texture, with small folds of skin along the back. This frog exhibits a unique feature regarding its color. A light-colored strip runs along

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1408-494: Is common, and found in many species of nanoflagellates , dinoflagellates , ciliates , rotifers , a diverse range of meroplankton animal larvae, and two groups of crustaceans, namely copepods and cladocerans . To feed, a predator must search for, pursue and kill its prey. These actions form a foraging cycle. The predator must decide where to look for prey based on its geographical distribution; and once it has located prey, it must assess whether to pursue it or to wait for

1472-520: Is created, the female then begins to lay her eggs in shallow water, and the male fertilizes the eggs. The egg masses, fairly large in size, range up to 1300 eggs. The egg masses, once laid, absorb water and become the size of a softball. These eggs are not attached to any type of vegetation , but are left free-floating in a permanent water source. Soon after, the eggs hatch into tadpoles. The Columbia spotted frog's breeding schedule depends heavily on geographical location and elevation. In British Columbia ,

1536-402: Is distinct from scavenging on dead prey, though many predators also scavenge ; it overlaps with herbivory , as seed predators and destructive frugivores are predators. Predators may actively search for or pursue prey or wait for it, often concealed. When prey is detected, the predator assesses whether to attack it. This may involve ambush or pursuit predation , sometimes after stalking

1600-436: Is fairly aquatic . Their habitats are found generally near permanent bodies of water, which can include lakes , ponds , slow-moving streams , and marshes . These frogs were found to need specific habitat characteristics within these broader habitat characteristics. Adult spotted frogs inhabit mostly seasonally flooded sites, where the water source is constant, but at certain times of the year, increases exponentially in both

1664-450: Is opportunistic at best. It will eat a variety of insects, including grasshoppers , ants , wasps , beetles , and moths . These insects comprise more than 50% of the frog's diet. This frog will also eat seemingly unusual animals, such as crustaceans , mollusks , arthropods , and arachnids . In addition to being an insectivore , the Columbia spotted frog will eat algae, organic debris,

1728-514: Is restricted to mammals, birds, and insects but is found in almost all terrestrial ecosystems. Egg predation includes both specialist egg predators such as some colubrid snakes and generalists such as foxes and badgers that opportunistically take eggs when they find them. Some plants, like the pitcher plant , the Venus fly trap and the sundew , are carnivorous and consume insects . Methods of predation by plants varies greatly but often involves

1792-430: Is size. Prey that is too small may not be worth the trouble for the amount of energy it provides. Too large, and it may be too difficult to capture. For example, a mantid captures prey with its forelegs and they are optimized for grabbing prey of a certain size. Mantids are reluctant to attack prey that is far from that size. There is a positive correlation between the size of a predator and its prey. A predator may assess

1856-451: The Cambrian period. At the most basic level, predators kill and eat other organisms. However, the concept of predation is broad, defined differently in different contexts, and includes a wide variety of feeding methods; moreover, some relationships that result in the prey's death are not necessarily called predation. A parasitoid , such as an ichneumon wasp , lays its eggs in or on its host;

1920-465: The angel shark , the northern pike and the eastern frogfish . Among the many invertebrate ambush predators are trapdoor spiders and Australian Crab spiders on land and mantis shrimps in the sea. Ambush predators often construct a burrow in which to hide, improving concealment at the cost of reducing their field of vision. Some ambush predators also use lures to attract prey within striking range. The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap

1984-455: The common garter snake has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the rough-skinned newt . Predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. This may explain population dynamics effects such as

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2048-453: The dorsal surface . The belly and upper lip are white in color. Individuals can be distinguished from other Rana species by their shorter back legs, narrow snout, and upturned eyes. Since they spend most of their time in the water, they also have more webbing in their hind feet than similar species. Although not threatened, this animal has been studied as a model species for the effects of habitat fragmentation . The Columbia spotted frog

2112-475: The grouper and coral trout spot prey that is inaccessible to them, they signal to giant moray eels , Napoleon wrasses or octopuses . These predators are able to access small crevices and flush out the prey. Killer whales have been known to help whalers hunt baleen whales . Social hunting allows predators to tackle a wider range of prey, but at the risk of competition for the captured food. Solitary predators have more chance of eating what they catch, at

2176-461: The marginal value theorem . Search patterns often appear random. One such is the Lévy walk , that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. It is a good fit to the behaviour of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter-gatherers. Having found prey, a predator must decide whether to pursue it or keep searching. The decision depends on

2240-417: The ability of Columbia spotted frogs to reproduce. Frogs raised in outdoor mini-ecosystems with Silver Valley soil (which contains mixtures of different metals) also showed altered predator-avoidance behaviors, decreased learning and adaptation abilities, and slower fright responses towards predator cues compared to frogs raised in mini-ecosystems with single metals. An additional effect of these metal mixtures

2304-709: The ability of predatory bacteria to digest the complex peptidoglycan polymer from the cell walls of the bacteria that they prey upon. Carnivorous vertebrates of all five major classes (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have lower relative rates of sugar to amino acid transport than either herbivores or omnivores, presumably because they acquire plenty of amino acids from the animal proteins in their diet. To counter predation, prey have evolved defences for use at each stage of an attack. They can try to avoid detection, such as by using camouflage and mimicry . They can detect predators and warn others of their presence. If detected, they can try to avoid being

2368-728: The ability to crush or open the armoured shells of molluscs. Many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves; this applies as much to small predators such as ants and shrews as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the cougar and lion . Predators are often highly specialized in their diet and hunting behaviour; for example, the Eurasian lynx only hunts small ungulates . Others such as leopards are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species. The specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when

2432-591: The amount and level of water available. These frogs are a constant victim to predation , so they require an abundant source of low-growing or emergent vegetation as shelter. In areas such as the Silver Valley in Northern Idaho, some spotted frog habitats have been destroyed by toxicants such as smelter byproducts. When ecosystems are contaminated with mixtures of heavy metals such as lead , zinc , cadmium , mercury , silver , and copper , this can disrupt

2496-584: The assault. When animals eat seeds ( seed predation or granivory ) or eggs ( egg predation ), they are consuming entire living organisms, which by definition makes them predators. Scavengers , organisms that only eat organisms found already dead, are not predators, but many predators such as the jackal and the hyena scavenge when the opportunity arises. Among invertebrates, social wasps such as yellowjackets are both hunters and scavengers of other insects. While examples of predators among mammals and birds are well known, predators can be found in

2560-684: The back (dorsal) and belly (pectoral) which lock in the erect position; as the catfish thrashes about when captured, these could pierce the predator's mouth, possibly fatally. Some fish-eating birds like the osprey avoid the danger of spines by tearing up their prey before eating it. In social predation, a group of predators cooperates to kill prey. This makes it possible to kill creatures larger than those they could overpower singly; for example, hyenas , and wolves collaborate to catch and kill herbivores as large as buffalo, and lions even hunt elephants. It can also make prey more readily available through strategies like flushing of prey and herding it into

2624-430: The chemical on adult frogs. The lungs of adult frogs and juveniles allow them to survive rotenone in their environment. The Columbia spotted frog reproduces similarly to other amphibians , but with a few unique details added. Reproduction takes place in areas where emergent vegetation is present. Two of the preferred types of vegetation for reproduction are reed canary grasses and cattails . The spotted frog reproduces in

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2688-416: The costs and benefits involved. A bird foraging for insects spends a lot of time searching but capturing and eating them is quick and easy, so the efficient strategy for the bird is to eat every palatable insect it finds. By contrast, a predator such as a lion or falcon finds its prey easily but capturing it requires a lot of effort. In that case, the predator is more selective. One of the factors to consider

2752-993: The eggs hatch into larvae, which eat the host, and it inevitably dies. Zoologists generally call this a form of parasitism , though conventionally parasites are thought not to kill their hosts. A predator can be defined to differ from a parasitoid in that it has many prey, captured over its lifetime, where a parasitoid's larva has just one, or at least has its food supply provisioned for it on just one occasion. There are other difficult and borderline cases. Micropredators are small animals that, like predators, feed entirely on other organisms; they include fleas and mosquitoes that consume blood from living animals, and aphids that consume sap from living plants. However, since they typically do not kill their hosts, they are now often thought of as parasites. Animals that graze on phytoplankton or mats of microbes are predators, as they consume and kill their food organisms, while herbivores that browse leaves are not, as their food plants usually survive

2816-404: The evolution of mimicry. Avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. However, when the prey is capable of killing the predator (as can a coral snake with its venom), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. Predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter-adaptations. In western North America,

2880-399: The frog will breed during February at sea level. In areas around Utah, the frog will breed around mid-March at an elevation of about 1,395 m (4,577 ft). At areas of Wyoming, the frog will reproduce from May through June at elevations around 2,377 m (7,799 ft). The female will breed yearly at lower elevations and about every two to three years at higher elevations. This frog

2944-431: The larvae of coccinellid beetles (ladybirds) , alternate between actively searching and scanning the environment. Prey distributions are often clumped, and predators respond by looking for patches where prey is dense and then searching within patches. Where food is found in patches, such as rare shoals of fish in a nearly empty ocean, the search stage requires the predator to travel for a substantial time, and to expend

3008-429: The light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat. Flower mantises are ambush predators; camouflaged as flowers, such as orchids , they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough. Frogfishes are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an esca , a bait on the end of a rod-like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic

3072-434: The other hand, the fitness cost of a given lost dinner is unpredictable, as the predator may quickly find better prey. In addition, most predators are generalists, which reduces the impact of a given prey adaption on a predator. Since specialization is caused by predator-prey coevolution, the rarity of specialists may imply that predator-prey arms races are rare. It is difficult to determine whether given adaptations are truly

3136-538: The prey an opportunity to escape. Some frogs wait until snakes have begun their strike before jumping, reducing the time available to the snake to recalibrate its attack, and maximising the angular adjustment that the snake would need to make to intercept the frog in real time. Ballistic predators include insects such as dragonflies, and vertebrates such as archerfish (attacking with a jet of water), chameleons (attacking with their tongues), and some colubrid snakes . In pursuit predation, predators chase fleeing prey. If

3200-549: The prey are dense and mobile, and the predator has low energy requirements. Wide foraging expends more energy, and is used when prey is sedentary or sparsely distributed. There is a continuum of search modes with intervals between periods of movement ranging from seconds to months. Sharks, sunfish , Insectivorous birds and shrews are almost always moving while web-building spiders, aquatic invertebrates, praying mantises and kestrels rarely move. In between, plovers and other shorebirds , freshwater fish including crappies , and

3264-413: The prey flees in a straight line, capture depends only on the predator's being faster than the prey. If the prey manoeuvres by turning as it flees, the predator must react in real time to calculate and follow a new intercept path, such as by parallel navigation , as it closes on the prey. Many pursuit predators use camouflage to approach the prey as close as possible unobserved ( stalking ) before starting

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3328-428: The prey's body. However, the "life-dinner" principle of Dawkins and Krebs predicts that this arms race is asymmetric: if a predator fails to catch its prey, it loses its dinner, while if it succeeds, the prey loses its life. The metaphor of an arms race implies ever-escalating advances in attack and defence. However, these adaptations come with a cost; for instance, longer legs have an increased risk of breaking, while

3392-433: The prey, given that the attack is not modifiable once launched. Ballistic interception is the strategy where a predator observes the movement of a prey, predicts its motion, works out an interception path, and then attacks the prey on that path. This differs from ambush predation in that the predator adjusts its attack according to how the prey is moving. Ballistic interception involves a brief period for planning, giving

3456-497: The prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible parts like the shell or spines, and eats it. Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision , hearing , or smell . Many predatory animals , both vertebrate and invertebrate , have sharp claws or jaws to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that improve hunting efficiency. Predation has

3520-504: The price of increased expenditure of energy to catch it, and increased risk that the prey will escape. Ambush predators are often solitary to reduce the risk of becoming prey themselves. Of 245 terrestrial members of the Carnivora (the group that includes the cats, dogs, and bears), 177 are solitary; and 35 of the 37 wild cats are solitary, including the cougar and cheetah. However, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in

3584-414: The pursuit. Pursuit predators include terrestrial mammals such as humans, African wild dogs, spotted hyenas and wolves; marine predators such as dolphins, orcas and many predatory fishes, such as tuna; predatory birds (raptors) such as falcons; and insects such as dragonflies . An extreme form of pursuit is endurance or persistence hunting , in which the predator tires out the prey by following it over

3648-470: The result of coevolution, where a prey adaptation gives rise to a predator adaptation that is countered by further adaptation in the prey. An alternative explanation is escalation , where predators are adapting to competitors, their own predators or dangerous prey. Apparent adaptations to predation may also have arisen for other reasons and then been co-opted for attack or defence. In some of the insects preyed on by bats, hearing evolved before bats appeared and

3712-399: The same body of water in which it lives. Males present a chorus to the females to try to attract a mate. This song ranges from a series of clicks to long, glottal sounds. This frog has an unusual characteristic of its reproduction . The male frog arrives at the breeding grounds before the female becomes reproductively active and establishes an oviposition site. Once the oviposition site

3776-611: The same size, such as the northern leopard frog , it tends to have shorter hind legs. The tadpoles are brownish-green in color, which runs dorsally along the tadpole. Gold spots are also intermittent throughout this coloring. The tadpoles have upturned, inset eyes. They usually reach around 3.1 inches (80 mm) in length before maturing to adults. The Columbia spotted frog is widespread throughout western North America , from Alaska and parts of British Columbia to Washington , Idaho , and parts of Wyoming , Nevada , and Utah . The Columbia spotted frog, like most other frogs,

3840-417: The specialized tongue of the chameleon, with its ability to act like a projectile, is useless for lapping water, so the chameleon must drink dew off vegetation. The "life-dinner" principle has been criticized on multiple grounds. The extent of the asymmetry in natural selection depends in part on the heritability of the adaptive traits. Also, if a predator loses enough dinners, it too will lose its life. On

3904-684: The target of an attack, for example, by signalling that they are toxic or unpalatable , by signalling that a chase would be unprofitable, or by forming groups. If they become a target, they can try to fend off the attack with defences such as armour, quills , unpalatability, or mobbing; and they can often escape an attack in progress by startling the predator, playing dead , shedding body parts such as tails, or simply fleeing. Predators and prey are natural enemies, and many of their adaptations seem designed to counter each other. For example, bats have sophisticated echolocation systems to detect insects and other prey, and insects have developed

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3968-413: The upper lip, and the ventral sides of the frog are usually colored either pink or yellow, but only in the adult form. This frog is well known by a few of its physical characteristics, as well. It has a long, narrow out and upturned eyes. The spotted frog is known as a very aquatic amphibian ; the webbing on its feet extends all the way to the end of its longest toe. When comparing this frog to others of

4032-418: Was delayed metamorphosis . Another substance that can negatively affect Columbia spotted frogs is the piscicide rotenone , which is used to remove non-native fish species. A recent study revealed that rotenone had deadly effects on Columbia spotted frog tadpoles that had not developed into lung-breathing stages. There was a 100% mortality rate in tadpoles exposed to rotenone compared to almost no effects of

4096-401: Was used to hear signals used for territorial defence and mating. Their hearing evolved in response to bat predation, but the only clear example of reciprocal adaptation in bats is stealth echolocation. A more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. The predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives

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