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45-537: Appointments were non-transferable and usually hereditary, made to locals, usually from wealthy influential families loyal to the British Crown. The term Arachchi was also used to refer to a supervisory peon serving in government offices such as a Kachcheri or a District Court. It is no longer in use. The post was in existence before the Colonial Rule of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). After the coastal areas were taken over by

90-491: A peon may be defined as a person with little authority, often assigned unskilled tasks; an underling or any person subjected to capricious or unreasonable oversight . In this sense, peon can be used in either a derogatory or self-effacing context. There are similar usages in contemporary cultures: However, the term has a historical basis and usage related to much more severe conditions of forced labor: The Spanish conquest of Mexico and Caribbean islands included peonage;

135-484: A Town or group of small villages placed under his Administration Gan Arachchi had a village or group of small villages placed under his Administration Peon Peon ( English / ˈ p iː ɒ n / , from the Spanish peón Spanish pronunciation: [peˈon] ) usually refers to a person subject to peonage : any form of wage labor , financial exploitation, coercive economic practice, or policy in which

180-472: A dialect group. For a given Chinese variety , colloquial readings typically reflect native vernacular phonology. Literary readings are used in some formal settings ( recitation , some loanwords and names) and originate from other, typically more prestigious varieties. Sometimes literary and colloquial readings of the same character have different meanings. For example, in Cantonese , the character 平 can have

225-616: A given language that share the same etymological root. Doublets are often the result of loanwords being borrowed from other languages. While doublets may be synonyms, the characterization is usually reserved for words that have diverged significantly in meaning: for example, the English doublets pyre and fire are distinct terms with related meanings that both ultimately descend from the Proto-Indo-European word * péh₂ur . Words with similar meanings but subtle differences contribute to

270-479: A learned borrowing, such as scandal and slander , both from σκάνδαλον. Many words of French origin were borrowed twice or more. There were at least three periods of borrowing: one that occurred shortly after the Norman Conquest and came from Norman French , one in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from standard (Parisian) French at the time when English nobles were switching from French to English, and

315-476: A native word may be borrowed into a foreign language, then reborrowed back into the original language, existing alongside the original term. An English example is animation and anime "Japanese animation", which was reborrowed from Japanese アニメ anime . Such a word is sometimes called a Rückwanderer (German for "one who wanders back"). In case of twins of foreign origin, which consist of two borrowings (of related terms), one can distinguish if

360-405: A separate sister language. In other words, one route was direct inheritance, while the other route was inheritance followed by borrowing. In English this means one word inherited from a Germanic source, with, e.g., a Latinate cognate term borrowed from Latin or a Romance language. In English this is most common with words which can be traced back to Indo-European languages , which in many cases share

405-461: A share of the crops. This was called sharecropping . The land owner would pay for the seeds and tools in exchange for a percentage of the money earned from the crop and a portion of the crop. As time passed, many landowners began to abuse this system. The landowner would force the tenant farmer or sharecropper to buy seeds and tools from the land owner's store, which often had inflated prices. As sharecroppers were often illiterate, they had to depend on

450-519: A third one during the sixteenth to nineteenth century, when France was at the height of its power and international influence. Examples of doublets from the first and second periods are catch vs. chase , cattle vs. chattel , and warden vs. guardian . More recent borrowings are often distinguished by maintaining the French spelling and pronunciation, e.g. chef (vs. chief ), pâté (vs. paste ), fête (vs. feast ). There are multiple doublets caused by

495-448: Is aperture and overture (the commonality behind the meanings is "opening"). Doublets may also develop contrasting meanings, such as the terms host and guest , which come from the same PIE word * gʰóstis and already existed as a doublet in Latin, and then Old French , before being borrowed into English. Doublets also vary with respect to how far their forms have diverged. For example,

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540-527: Is cuid . In Japanese , doublets are most significant in borrowings from Chinese, and are visible as different on'yomi (Sino-Japanese readings) of kanji characters. There have been three major periods of borrowing from Chinese, together with some modern borrowings. These borrowings are from different regions (hence different Chinese varieties) and different periods, and thus the pronunciations have varied, sometimes widely. However, due to consistent Chinese writing, with cognate morphemes represented by

585-441: Is borrowing from both a language and its daughter language. In English this is usually Latin and some other Romance language, particularly French – see Latin influence in English . The distinction between this and the previous is whether the source language has changed to a different language or not. Less directly, a term may be borrowed both directly from a source language and indirectly via an intermediate language. In English this

630-573: Is most common in borrowings from Latin, and borrowings from French that are themselves from Latin; less commonly from Greek directly and through Latin. In case of borrowing cognate terms, rather than descendants, most simply an existing doublet can be borrowed: two contemporary twin terms can be borrowed. More remotely, cognate terms from different languages can be borrowed, such as sauce (Old French) and salsa (Spanish), both ultimately from Latin, or tea (Dutch thee ) and chai (Hindi), both ultimately from Chinese . This last pair reflects

675-525: Is the doublet 考 and 老 . At one time they were pronounced similarly and meant "old (person)." 老 ( /lɑʊ̯˨˩˦/ in Standard Mandarin ) has retained this meaning, but 考 /kʰɑʊ̯˨˩˦/ now mainly means "examine". Differing literary and colloquial readings of certain Chinese characters are common doublets in many Chinese varieties , and the reading distinctions for certain phonetic features often typify

720-510: Is ultimately derived from Sanskrit but underwent changes through time, or tatsama ('same as that'), which is borrowed directly from literary Sanskrit. For example, Hindi [[[wikt:बाघ|bāgh]]] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) 'tiger' is derived by historical stages ( tadbhava ) from Sanskrit [[[wikt:व्याघ्र|vyāghra]]] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) 'tiger'. Meanwhile, Hindi has also directly borrowed ( tatsama )

765-841: The conquistadors forced natives to work for Spanish planters and mine operators. Peonage was prevalent in Latin America, especially in the countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador and Peru. It remains an important part of social life, as among the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon. After the American Civil War of 1861–1865, peonage developed in the Southern United States . Poor white farmers and formerly enslaved African Americans known as freedmen , who could not afford their own land, would farm another person's land, exchanging labor for

810-449: The w → g and ca → cha sound changes, which happened in standard French but not Norman French. Several of these examples also reflect changes that occurred after Old French which caused the possible environments of [s] to be greatly reduced. Derivative cognates are a classification of Chinese characters which have similar meanings and often the same etymological root, but which have diverged in pronunciation and meaning. An example

855-683: The Colonial Rulers i.e. Portuguese , Dutch colonial rule and finally the British , they retained the post in their administration system. During the British administration, appointments were made by the Government Agent of the Province . Appointments were non-transferable and usually hereditary, made to locals, usually from wealthy influential families loyal the British Crown. This was an influential post,

900-580: The Federal Constitution was made punishable by fine or a year's imprisonment. But until the involuntary servitude was abolished by president Lyndon B. Johnson in August 6, 1966, sharecroppers in Southern states were forced to continue working to pay off old debts or to pay taxes. Southern states allowed this in order to preserve sharecropping. The following reported court cases involved peonage: Because of

945-606: The Sanskrit word vyāghra , meaning 'tiger' in a more literary register. Triplets: As with many languages in Europe, a great deal of borrowing from written Latin – latinismos ( Latinisms ), or cultismos (learned words) – occurred during the Renaissance and the early modern era. Because Spanish is itself a Romance language already with many native words of Latin ancestry (transmitted orally, so with natural sound changes),

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990-618: The Spanish tradition, peonage remained legal and widespread in the New Mexico Territory even after the Civil War . In response, Congress passed the Peonage Act of 1867 on March 2, 1867, which said: "Sec 1990. The holding of any person to service or labor under the system known as peonage is abolished and forever prohibited in the territory of New Mexico, or in any other territory or state of

1035-638: The United States; and all acts, laws, … made to establish, maintain, or enforce, directly or indirectly, the voluntary or involuntary service or labor of any persons as peons, in liquidation of any debt or obligation, or otherwise, are declared null and void." The current version of this statute is codified at Chapter 21-I of 42 U.S.C.   § 1994 and makes no specific mention of New Mexico. Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Doublet (linguistics) In etymology , doublets (alternatively etymological twins or twinlings ) are words in

1080-404: The books and accounting by the landowner and his staff. Other tactics included debiting expenses against the sharecropper's profits after the crop was harvested and "miscalculating" the net profit from the harvest, thereby keeping the sharecropper in perpetual debt to the landowner. Since the tenant farmers could not offset the costs, they were forced into involuntary labor due to the debts they owed

1125-458: The borrowing is of a term and a descendant, or of two cognate terms (siblings). Etymological twins are often a result of chronologically separate borrowing from a source language. In the case of English, this usually means once from French during the Norman invasion , and again later, after the word had evolved separately in French. An example of this is warranty and guarantee . Another possibility

1170-648: The colloquial pronunciation /pʰɛŋ˨˩/ ("inexpensive"), and the literary pronunciation /pʰɪŋ˨˩/ ("flat"). The words píosa and cuid (both meaning "part" or "portion") form an Irish doublet, both from the Proto-Celtic root * kʷesdis . This root became in Gaulish * pettyā‎ , then was borrowed into Late Latin as pettia , Anglo-Norman piece , then Middle English pece , before being borrowed into Middle Irish as pissa , which became modern píosa . In Old Irish , * kʷesdis became cuit , which in modern Irish

1215-399: The connection between levy and levee is easy to guess, whereas the connection between sovereign and soprano is harder to guess. Doublets can develop in various ways, according to which route the two forms took from the origin to their current form. Complex, multi-step paths are possible, though in many cases groups of terms follow the same path. Simple paths are discussed below, with

1260-743: The existing system each village or group of small villages is placed under the supervision of minor headman known as Gam Arachchi in Kandyan areas and police vidane or police headman in low country. The positions above those headmen were Korala in Kandyan districts; Uddaiyar in Tamil districts Vidane Arachchi in districts of low country. The top rank above all officials was represented by “Rate Mahatmaya,and Adigars in Kandyyan districts, Maniyagars and Vanniyars in Tamil Districts and Mudliers in southern provinces. Following

1305-557: The formation of the State Council of Ceylon in 1931, one of its members, H. W. Amarasuriya , called for an inquiry into the Native Headman System. A commission was formed made up of retired civil servants and lawyers headed by H.M. Wedderburn. The commission reported on reforming the headman system or replacing it with transferable District Revenue Officers. The Native Headman System was abolished as an administrative system, with

1350-401: The history of how tea has entered English via different trade routes. Many thousands of English examples can be found, grouped according to their earliest deducible Indo-European ancestor. In some cases over a hundred English words can be traced to a single root. Some examples in English include: There are many more doublets from Greek , where one form is a vernacular borrowing and the other

1395-682: The holder had much control over the people of the area and had limited police powers since he was responsible to keep the peace, carry out revenue collection and assist in judicial functions. This became part of the Native Department of the British Government of Ceylon. Several Vidanes came under the supervision of a Vidane Arachchi in Low Country and under the supervision of Udayar in Tamil Area.The Headman Commission of 1922 states that “under

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1440-586: The landowner. Additionally, unpredictable or disruptive climatic conditions, such as droughts or storms, caused disruptions to seasonal plantings or harvests, which in turn, caused the tenant farmers to accrue debts with the landowners. After the U.S. Civil War, the South passed " Black Codes ", laws to control freed black slaves. Vagrancy laws were included in these Black Codes. Homeless or unemployed African Americans who were between jobs, most of whom were former slaves, were arrested and fined as vagrants. Usually lacking

1485-635: The later written borrowing created a number of doublets. Adding to this was Spain's conquest by the Moors in the Middle Ages, leading to another vector for creating doublets (Latin to Arabic to Spanish). List of doublets in Welsh  [ cy ] Welsh contains many doublets of native origin, where a single Indo-European root has developed along different paths in the language. Examples of this are: In addition to native doublets, Welsh has borrowed extensively over

1530-431: The name of an animal comes from Germanic while the name of its cooked meat comes from Romance. Since English is unusual in that it borrowed heavily from two distinct branches of the same language family tree – Germanic and Latinate/Romance – it has a relatively high number of this latter type of etymological twin. See list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English for further examples and discussion. Less commonly,

1575-539: The prisoner had to work off the debt. Prisoners were leased as laborers to owners and operators of coal mines, lumber camps, brickyards, railroads, quarries, and farm plantations, with the lease revenues for their labor going to the states. The lessors were responsible for room and board of the laborers, and frequently abused them with little oversight by the state. Government officials leased imprisoned blacks and whites to small town entrepreneurs, provincial farmers, and dozens of corporations looking for cheap labor. Their labor

1620-604: The resources to pay the fine, the "vagrant" was sent to county labor or hired out under the convict lease program to a private employer. The authorities also tried to restrict the movement of freedmen between rural areas and cities, to between towns. Under such laws, local officials arbitrarily arrested tens of thousands of people and charged them with fines and court costs of their cases. Black freedmen were those most aggressively targeted. Poor whites were also arrested, but usually in much smaller numbers. White merchants, farmers, and business owners were allowed to pay these debts, and

1665-475: The richness of modern English, and many of these are doublets. A good example consists of the doublets frail and fragile . (These are both ultimately from the Latin adjective fragilis , but frail evolved naturally through its slowly changing forms in Old French and Middle English, whereas fragile is a learned borrowing directly from Latin in the 15th century.) Another example of nearly synonymous doublets

1710-519: The same proto-Indo-European root, such as Romance beef and Germanic cow . However, in some cases the branching is more recent, dating only to proto-Germanic, not to PIE; many words of Germanic origin occur in French and other Latinate languages, and hence in some cases were both inherited by English (from proto-Germanic) and borrowed from French or another source – see List of English Latinates of Germanic origin . The forward linguistic path also reflects cultural and historical transactions; often

1755-562: The same character, the etymological relation is clear. This is most significant at the level of morphemes, where a given character is pronounced differently in different words, but in some cases the same word was borrowed twice. These have been very valuable to scholars for reconstructing the sounds of Middle Chinese , and understanding how the pronunciations differed between Chinese regions and varied over time. In Hindi and other New Indo-Aryan languages, members of native doublets are identified as either tadbhava ('became that'), which

1800-417: The simplest distinction being that doublets in a given language can have their root in the same language (or an ancestor), or may originate in a separate language. Most simply, a native word can at some point split into two distinct forms, staying within a single language, as with English too which split from to . Alternatively, a word may be inherited from a parent language, and a cognate borrowed from

1845-463: The titles of Mudaliyar (Mudali - මුදලි) and Muhandiram retained by government to be awarded as honors. This practice remained until suspension of Celanese honors in 1956. The minor headman positions were retained, surviving well into the 1970s when the posts of Vidane (විදානේ) in Low Country / Tamil Area and Town Arachchi (ටවුන් ආරච්චි) / Gan Arachchi (ගන් ආරච්චි) in Kandyan Area were replaced with

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1890-439: The transferable post of Grama Niladhari (Village Officer). British appointed Arachchies had several classes; A Vidane Arachchi had several Vidanes under his supervision A Town Arachchi had a Town or group of small villages placed under his Administration A Gan Arachchi had a village or group of small villages placed under his Administration A Vidane Arachchi had several Vidanes under his supervision Town Arachchi had

1935-598: The victim or a laborer (peon) has little control over employment or economic conditions. Peon and peonage can refer to both the colonial period and post-colonial period of Latin America, as well as the period after the end of slavery in the United States , when " Black Codes " were passed to retain African-American freedmen as labor through other means. In English, peon ( doublet of pawn ) and peonage have meanings related to their Spanish etymology (foot soldier );

1980-561: The workers. After the Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment prohibited involuntary servitude such as peonage for all but convicted criminals. Congress also passed various laws to protect the constitutional rights of Southern blacks, making those who violated such rights by conspiracy, by trespass, or in disguise, guilty of an offense punishable by ten years in prison and civil disability. Unlawful use of state law to subvert rights under

2025-446: Was repeatedly bought and sold for decades, well into the 20th century, long after the official abolition of American slavery. Southern states and private businesses profited by this form of unpaid labor. It is estimated that at the beginning of the 20th century, up to 40% of blacks in the South were trapped in peonage. Overseers and owners often used severe physical deprivation, beatings, whippings, and other abuse as "discipline" against

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