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47-645: The Apache Kid Wilderness lies just south of the Withington Wilderness , which also straddles the San Mateo Mountains. The Apache Kid is also surrounded by 84,527 total acres of Inventoried Roadless Area (IRA) with the San Jose IRA (16,957 acres) to the south and the Apache Kid Contiguous IRA (67,570 acres) to the north, east, and west. Some 68 miles (109 km) of trails provide access to

94-438: A barrier to migration. As traffic volumes increase, the more mule deer tend to avoid those areas and abandon their typical migration routes. It has also been found that fencing can alter deer behavior, acting as a barrier, and potentially changing mule deer migration patterns. In addition, urban development has replaced mule deer habitat with subdivisions, and human activity has increased. As a result of this, researchers have seen

141-490: A decline in mule deer populations. This is especially prominent in Colorado where the human population has grown by over 2.2 million since 1980. Protecting migration corridors is essential to maintain healthy mule deer populations. One thing everyone can do is help slow the increase in climate change by using greener energy sources and reducing the amount of waste in our households. In addition, managers and researchers can assess

188-861: A deer after it has died naturally. Bears and small carnivores are typically opportunistic feeders and pose little threat to a strong, healthy mule deer. In 99 studies of mule deer diets, some 788 species of plants were eaten by mule deer, and their diets vary greatly depending on the season, geographic region, year, and elevation. The studies gave these data for Rocky Mountain mule deer diets: The diets of mule deer are very similar to those of white-tailed deer in areas where they coexist. Mule deer are intermediate feeders rather than pure browsers or grazers ; they predominantly browse but also eat forb vegetation, small amounts of grass and, where available, tree or shrub fruits such as beans , pods , nuts (including acorns ), and berries . Mule deer readily adapt to agricultural products and landscape plantings. In

235-542: A height of 80–106 cm (31–42 in) at the shoulders and a nose-to-tail length ranging from 1.2 to 2.1 m (3.9 to 6.9 ft). Of this, the tail may comprise 11.6 to 23 cm (4.6 to 9.1 in). Adult bucks normally weigh 55–150 kg (121–331 lb), averaging around 92 kg (203 lb), although trophy specimens may weigh up to 210 kg (460 lb). Does (female deer) are smaller and typically weigh from 43 to 90 kg (95 to 198 lb), with an average of around 68 kg (150 lb). Unlike

282-528: A risk for migrating mule deer by invalidating historic or learned migration paths. Human activities such as natural resource extraction, highways, fencing, and urban development all have an impact on mule deer populations and migrations through habitat degradation and fragmentation. Natural gas extraction has been found to have varying negative effects on mule deer behavior and can even cause them to avoid areas they use to migrate. Highways not only cause injury and death to mule deer, but they can also serve as

329-782: A variety of wild mushrooms , which are most abundant in late summer and fall in the southern Rocky Mountains; mushrooms provide moisture, protein, phosphorus, and potassium. Humans sometimes engage in supplemental feeding efforts in severe winters in an attempt to help mule deer avoid starvation. Wildlife agencies discourage such efforts, which cause harm to mule deer populations by spreading disease (such as tuberculosis and chronic wasting disease ) when deer congregate for feed, disrupting migratory patterns, causing overpopulation of local mule deer populations, and causing habitat destruction from overbrowsing of shrubs and forbs. Supplemental feeding efforts might be appropriate when carefully conducted under limited circumstances, but to be successful,

376-664: Is a 19,000-acre designated Wilderness area located within the Cibola National Forest in western New Mexico . Located in the Magdalena Ranger District, approximately 20 miles southwest of Magdalena, New Mexico , the wilderness area lies around 10,100 ft. Mount Withington, on the eastern slope of the San Mateo Mountains in Socorro County, New Mexico , United States . The Withington Wilderness Area

423-444: Is about seven. Mule deer are ruminants , meaning they employ a nutrient acquisition strategy of fermenting plant material before digesting it. Deer consuming high-fiber, low-starch diets require less food than those consuming high-starch, low-fiber diets. Rumination time also increases when deer consume high-fiber, low-starch diets, which allows for increased nutrient acquisition due to greater length of fermentation. Because some of

470-477: Is complicated. Some authorities have recognized O. h. crooki as a senior synonym of O. h. eremicus , but the type specimen of the former is a hybrid between the mule deer and white-tailed deer, so the name O. h. crooki is invalid. Additionally, the validity of O. h. inyoensis has been questioned, and the two insular O. h. cerrosensis and O. h. sheldoni may be synonyms of O. h. eremicus or O. h. peninsulae . The 10 valid subspecies, based on

517-621: Is directly involved with basal metabolic rate and thermoregulation. Mule deer migrate from low elevation winter ranges to high elevation summer ranges. Although not all individuals in populations migrate, some will travel long distances between summer and winter ranges. Researchers discovered the longest mule deer migration in Wyoming spanning 150 miles from winter to summer range Multiple US states track mule deer migrations. Mule deer migrate in fall to avoid harsh winter conditions like deep snow that covers up food resources, and in spring follow

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564-542: Is found throughout most of North America east of the Rocky Mountains and in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains from Idaho and Wyoming northward, mule deer are only found on the western Great Plains , in the Rocky Mountains, in the southwest United States , and on the west coast of North America. Mule deer have also been introduced to Argentina and Kauai, Hawaii . Mule deer can be divided into two main groups:

611-592: Is located in the Wilderness Area. Many loop trips can be made, and the area can accommodate a 1-week backpack trip. The Wilderness Area is located in the remote and rugged San Mateo Mountains. Far from any population centers, the area offers solitude for those who venture into the backcountry. There are no permanent streams within the wilderness and the few springs and water sources in the Wilderness are unreliable. Withington Wilderness The Withington Wilderness

658-626: Is regulated by changes in the length of the day. The size of mule deer groups follows a marked seasonal pattern. Groups are smallest during fawning season (June and July in Saskatchewan and Alberta) and largest in early gestation (winter; February and March in Saskatchewan and Alberta). Besides humans, the three leading predators of mule deer are coyotes , wolves , and cougars . Bobcats , Canada lynx , wolverines , American black bears , and grizzly bears may prey upon adult deer but most often attack only fawns or infirm specimens, or they may eat

705-487: Is the Very Large Array radio telescope observatory. Mule deer 10, but some disputed (see text ) The mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) is a deer indigenous to western North America ; it is named for its ears, which are large like those of the mule . Two subspecies of mule deer are grouped into the black-tailed deer . Unlike the related white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), which

752-428: Is the case with white-tails. Each spring, a buck's antlers start to regrow almost immediately after the old antlers are shed. Shedding typically takes place in mid-February, with variations occurring by locale. Although capable of running, mule deer are often seen stotting (also called pronking), with all four feet coming down together. The mule deer is the larger of the three Odocoileus species on average, with

799-543: Is typical of the region, with pinyon pine and juniper woodlands at lower elevations, spruce , fir , and aspen at the higher elevations, and ponderosa pine in between. Wildlife in the Apache Kid Wilderness is abundant. Species found here include Coue's white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus couesi ), mule deer , elk , black bear , bobcat , cougar , antelope , javelina , coyote , rabbit , squirrel , and quail . The area contains critical habitat for

846-986: The Sierra Nevada range , mule deer depend on the lichen Bryoria fremontii as a winter food source. The most common plant species consumed by mule deer are the following: Mule deer have also been known to eat ricegrass , gramagrass , and needlegrass , as well as bearberry , bitter cherry , black oak , California buckeye , ceanothus , cedar , cliffrose , cottonwood , creek dogwood , creeping barberry , dogwood , Douglas fir , elderberry , Fendlera species, goldeneye , holly-leaf buckthorn , jack pine , knotweed , Kohleria species, manzanita , mesquite , pine , rabbitbrush , ragweed , redberry , scrub oak , serviceberry (including Pacific serviceberry ), Sierra juniper , silktassel , snowberry , stonecrop , sunflower , tesota , thimbleberry , turbinella oak , velvet elder , western chokecherry , wild cherry , and wild oats . Where available, mule deer also eat

893-509: The Apache Kid Wilderness. The Wilderness was designated by Congress in 1980 and provides outstanding hiking, backpacking, star-gazing, hunting, and horseback-riding opportunities. The Apache Kid Wilderness has a long, rich history, full of lore from the Wild West. Basham noted in his report documenting the archeological history of the Cibola's Magdalena Ranger District that "[t]he heritage resources on

940-703: The District’s southern half as the Apache Kid Wilderness . Both Wilderness Areas are administered by the Cibola National Forest , headquartered in Albuquerque , and are managed as part of the Magdalena Ranger District, located in Magdalena . The topography in the northern San Mateo Mountains is gentler than that in the south, but still features deep canyons, high ridgelines and generally dry conditions. Winters are cold enough to bring snow, and during July and August,

987-578: The Magdalena-Datil region from the seventeenth century until they were defeated in the Apache Wars in the late nineteenth century. In fact, the Apache Kid Wilderness is named for a Native American called the Apache Kid . Angered by his relentless raids, on September 4, 1907, local ranchers hunted him down into Blue Mountain , killed him and blazed a tree to mark the spot. However, some accounts say that it

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1034-631: The Potato Canyon Trail is 2.5 miles from the junction with Forest Road 52 and the Water Canyon Trail trail-head is 6.5 miles, near the gated end of Forest Road 56. The 8,039-acre White Cap Inventoried Roadless Area is directly adjacent to the Withington Wilderness. The Apache Kid Wilderness , also in the San Mateo Mountains, lies due south of the Withington Wilderness. To the north of the Withington Wilderness and San Mateo Mountains

1081-593: The United States stretched 125 miles westward from Magdalena. The route was formally known as the Magdalena Livestock Driveway, but more popularly known to cowboys and cattlemen as the Beefsteak Trail. The trail began use in 1865 and its peak was in 1919. The trail was used continually until trailing gave way to trucking and the trail official closed in 1971. The vegetation in the Apache Kid Wilderness

1128-433: The Wilderness is critical habitat for the threatened Mexican spotted owl . The greater San Mateo Mountains were identified as a key conservation area by The Nature Conservancy due to their ecological diversity and species richness. In common with all designated Wilderness Areas, the Withington Wilderness is undeveloped and is closed to all forms of mechanized transport. A little visited area, particularly in comparison to

1175-550: The activity, noise, light at the extraction sites. The increase in urbanization has impacted mule deer migrations and there is evidence to show it also disrupts gene flow among mule deer populations. One clear option is to not build houses in critical mule deer habitat; however, build near mule deer habitat has resulted in some deer becoming accustomed to humans and the resources, such as food and water. Rather than migrate through urban areas some deer tend to stay close to those urban developments, potentially for resources and to avoid

1222-544: The black-tailed deer. Despite this, the mtDNA of the white-tailed deer and mule deer is similar, but differs from that of the black-tailed deer. This may be the result of introgression , although hybrids between the mule deer and white-tailed deer are rare in the wild (apparently more common locally in West Texas ), and the hybrid survival rate is low even in captivity. Many claims of observations of wild hybrids are not legitimate, as identification based on external features

1269-432: The breeding cycle is important in understanding deer behavior. The rut or mating season usually begins in the fall as does go into estrus for a period of a few days, and males become more aggressive, competing for mates. Does may mate with more than one buck and go back into estrus within a month if they did not become pregnant. The gestation period is about 190–200 days, with fawns born in the spring. The survival rate of

1316-533: The desert "monsoon" season, rainwater may flood narrow canyons. Vegetation within the Wilderness Area ranges from mixed conifers, such as pine, spruce, fir, in the higher elevations, to pinion and juniper in the more open ground east of the mountains, to stands of ocotillo along the western banks of the Rio Grande. Habitats in the Withington Wilderness support populations of mountain lion , black bear , elk , mule deer , coyote , turkey and quail . A portion of

1363-562: The district are diverse and representative of nearly every prominent human evolutionary event known to anthropology. Evidence for human use of district lands date back 14,000 years to the Paleoindian period providing glimpses into the peopling of the New World and megafaunal extinction ." Much of the now Magdalena Ranger District were a province of the Apache . Bands of Apache effectively controlled

1410-534: The emergence of new growth northwards. There is evidence to suggest that mule deer migrate based on cognitive memory, meaning they use the same path year after year even if the availability of resources has changed. This contradicts the idea that animals will go to the areas with the best available resources, which makes migratory paths crucial for survival. There are many risks that mule deer face during migration including climate change and human disturbance. Climate change impacts on seasonal growth patterns constitute

1457-403: The fawns during labor is about 50%. Fawns stay with their mothers during the summer and are weaned in the fall after about 60–75 days. Mule deer females usually give birth to two fawns, although if it is their first time having a fawn, they often have just one. A buck's antlers fall off during the winter, then grow again in preparation for the next season's rut. The annual cycle of antler growth

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1504-450: The feeding must begin early in the severe winter (before poor range conditions and severe weather cause malnourishment or starvation) and must be continued until range conditions can support the herd. Mule deer are variably gregarious, with a large proportion of solitary individuals (35 to 64%) and small groups (groups with ≤5 deer, 50 to 78%). Reported mean group size measurements are three to five and typical group size (i.e., crowding)

1551-418: The mule deer ( sensu stricto ) and the black-tailed deer . The first group includes all subspecies, except O. h. columbianus and O. h. sitkensis , which are in the black-tailed deer group. The two main groups have been treated as separate species, but they hybridize , and virtually all recent authorities treat the mule deer and black-tailed deer as conspecific . Mule deer apparently evolved from

1598-593: The nearby Apache Kid Wilderness , the Wilderness can be accessed for hiking and Leave-No-Trace primitive camping via two trail-heads on the eastern border of the Wilderness. These trail-heads offer access to a pair of trails that traverse the area east-to-west, the 4.4 mile Trail 437, The Water Canyon Trail and the 6.2 mile Trail 438, The Potato Canyon Trail. Both trail-heads can be reached from Magdalena by traveling south on NM 107 for approximately 18 miles, before turning west onto Forest Road 52 and going three miles before turning south onto Forest Road 56. The trail-head for

1645-493: The obstacles in urban areas. Suggested measures by property owners to protect mule deer genetic diversity and migration paths include planting deer-resistant plants, placing scare devices such as noise-makers, and desisting from feeding deer. Wildlife officials in Utah announced that a November–December 2021 field study had detected the first case of SARS-CoV-2 in mule deer. Several deer possessed apparent SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, however

1692-413: The prospecting/mining remnants are barely visible today due to collapse, topographic screening, and vegetation regrowth. While miners combed the mountains for mineral riches during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, stockmen drove tens of thousands of sheep and cattle to stockyards at the village of Magdalena, then linked by rail with Socorro . In fact, the last regularly used cattle trail in

1739-451: The remains of a recently abandoned Indian hunting camp. A mining rush followed the Apache wars – gold, silver, and copper were found in the San Mateo Mountains. It wasn't until this time that extensive use of the area by non-Native Americans occurred. While some mining activity, involving gold, silver, and copper, occurred in the southern part of the range near the end of the nineteenth century,

1786-451: The risks listed above and take the proper steps to mitigate any adverse impacts those risk have on mule deer populations. Not only will populations benefit from these efforts but so will many other wildlife species. One way to help protect deer from getting hit on roadways is to install high fence wildlife fencing with escape routes. This helps keep deer off the road, preventing vehicle collisions and allowing animals that are trapped between

1833-542: The road and the fence a way to escape to safety. However, to maintain migration routes that cross busy highways, managers have also implemented natural, vegetated, overpasses and underpasses to allow animals, like mule deer, to migrate and move safely across highways. Approaches to mitigating the impact of drilling and mining operations include regulating the time of year when active drilling and heavy traffic to sites are taking place, and using well-informed planning to protect critical deer habitat and using barriers to mitigate

1880-459: The subspecies of mule deer are migratory, they encounter variable habitats and forage quality throughout the year. Forages consumed in the summer are higher in digestible components (i.e. proteins, starches, sugars, and hemicellulose ) than those consumed in the winter. The average gross energy content of the consumed forage material is 4.5   kcal/g. Due to fluctuations in forage quality and availability, mule deer fat storage varies throughout

1927-467: The third edition of Mammal Species of the World , are: The most noticeable differences between white-tailed and mule deer are ear size, tail color, and antler configuration. In many cases, body size is also a key difference. The mule deer's tail is black-tipped, whereas the white-tailed deer's is not. Mule deer antlers are bifurcated; they "fork" as they grow, rather than branching from a single main beam, as

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1974-427: The threatened Mexican spotted owl and is an important breeding ground and movement corridor for mountain lions . The San Mateo Mountains have been identified as a key conservation area by The Nature Conservancy due to their biodiversity and ecological richness. The Apache Kid Wilderness Area provides hiking, camping, backpacking, hunting, horseback-riding, and stargazing opportunities. An extensive network of trails

2021-553: The white-tailed, the mule deer does not generally show marked size variation across its range, although environmental conditions can cause considerable weight fluctuations in any given population. An exception to this is the Sitka deer subspecies ( O. h. sitkensis ). This race is markedly smaller than other mule deer, with an average weight of 54.5 kg (120 lb) and 36 kg (79 lb) in males and females, respectively. In addition to movements related to available shelter and food,

2068-538: The year, with the most fat stored in October, which is depleted throughout the winter to the lowest levels of fat storage in March. Changes in hormone levels are indications of physiological adjustments to the changes in the habitat. Total body fat is a measure of the individual's energy reserves, while thyroid hormone concentrations are a metric to determine the deer's ability to use the fat reserves. Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone

2115-560: Was actually the famous warrior Massai who died that day (Massai was actually shot and killed 4 years later near Socorro, New Mexico . The hacked remains of the tree can still be seen today. While the Apache Kid is perhaps the most famous outlaw of the area, other notorious Apaches like Cochise and Geronimo and outlaw renegades Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch also have ties to the area. The Apache Kid Wilderness includes Vicks Peak, which

2162-794: Was designated in December 1980 as part of Public Law 96-550, which placed numerous areas in New Mexico’s National Forests in the National Wilderness Preservation System. Also known as the New Mexico Wilderness Act, the law created two Wilderness Areas in the Cibola National Forest’s Magdalena Ranger District, setting aside 19,000 acres in the District’s northeastern corner as the Withington Wilderness, and 44,678 acres in

2209-535: Was named after Victorio, "a Mimbreño Apache leader whose territory included much of the south and southwest New Mexico." Famous for defying relocation orders in 1879 and leading his warriors "on a two-year reign of terror before he was killed," Victorio is at least as highly regarded as Geronimo or Cochise among Apaches. Native Americans lingered in the San Mateo well into the 1900s. We know this by an essay written by Aldo Leopold in 1919 where he documents stumbling upon

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