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83-494: Prime Minister of Portugal Government Other António de Oliveira Salazar GCTE GCSE GColIH GCIC (28 April 1889 – 27 July 1970) was a Portuguese statesman, academic, and economist who served as Prime Minister of Portugal from 1932 to 1968. Having come to power under the Ditadura Nacional ("National Dictatorship"), he reframed the regime as the corporatist Estado Novo ("New State"), with himself as

166-460: A dictator . The regime he created lasted until 1974, making it one of the longest-lived authoritarian regimes in modern Europe. A political economy professor at the University of Coimbra , Salazar entered public life as finance minister with the support of President Óscar Carmona after the 28 May 1926 coup d'état . The military of 1926 saw themselves as the guardians of the nation in the wake of

249-542: A "pagan Caesarism " that did not recognise legal, religious or moral limits. Throughout his life Salazar avoided populist rhetoric. He was generally opposed to the concept of political parties when, in 1930, he created the National Union . Salazar described and promoted the party as a "non-party", and announced that the National Union would be the antithesis of a political party. He promoted Catholicism but argued that

332-525: A century of either economic stagnation or divergence from wealthier global economies, Portugal's economy began to consistently converge, particularly accelerating during the 1960s. Portugal's GDP per capita in relation to the EU reached 66% in 1973, falling afterwards to below 65% in 2022. The doctrine of pluricontinentalism was the basis of Salazar's territorial policy, a conception of the Portuguese Empire as

415-551: A free hand to veto expenditure in all government departments, not just his own. Salazar was the financial czar virtually from the day he took office. Within one year, armed with special powers, Salazar balanced the budget and stabilised Portugal's currency. Salazar produced the first of many budgetary surpluses in Portugal. In July 1929, Salazar again presented his resignation. His friend Mário de Figueiredo  [ pt ] , Minister of Justice, passed new legislation that facilitated

498-520: A materialistic conception of life, and might over right. Scholars such as Stanley G. Payne , Thomas Gerard Gallagher , Juan José Linz , António Costa Pinto , Roger Griffin , Robert Paxton and Howard J. Wiarda, prefer to consider the Portuguese Estado Novo as conservative authoritarian rather than fascist. On the other hand, some Portuguese scholars like Fernando Rosas , Manuel Villaverde Cabral, Manuel de Lucena and Manuel Loff think that

581-612: A modern sense, but also to monitor the population, apply censorship, and suppress the regime's political opponents, especially those associated with the international communist movement or the Soviet Union . Political prisoners were incarcerated in detention centers, such as the Caxias prison, near Lisbon, or the Tarrafal camp , on the Cabo Verde islands, and tortured. The political police used

664-706: A naval revolt took place in Lisbon. The crews of two naval Portuguese vessels, The NRP Afonso de Albuquerque and the Dão , mutinied. The sailors, who were affiliated with the Communist Party, confined their officers and attempted to sail the ships out of Lisbon to join the Spanish Republican forces fighting in Spain. Salazar ordered the ships to be destroyed by gunfire. The following day, loyalty oaths became mandatory for all members of

747-462: A net of civilian informants, in popular parlance " bufos ", who were found in practically all sectors of society. In the PIDE headquarters in Lisbon, a five-storey building on António Maria Cardoso Street, a Salazar's phrase was written: "We will mourn the dead, if the living don't deserve it". Until 1971, when interrogations took place in the southern stronghold of Caxias, it was there that many opponents of

830-648: A new phase in Iberian relations. Meetings between Franco and Salazar played a fundamental role in this new political arrangement. The pact proved to be a decisive instrument in keeping the Iberian Peninsula out of Hitler's continental system. The decisive conservatism of the regime naturally drew opposition. Emídio Santana  [ pt ] , founder of the Sindicato Nacional dos Metalúrgicos ("National Syndicate of Metallurgists") and an anarcho-syndicalist who

913-478: A pagan Caesarist political system that recognised neither legal nor moral limits. Salazar also viewed German Nazism as espousing pagan elements that he considered repugnant. Just before World War II, Salazar made this declaration: We are opposed to all forms of Internationalism, Communism, Socialism, Syndicalism and everything that may divide or minimise, or break up the family. We are against class warfare, irreligion and disloyalty to one's country; against serfdom,

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996-543: A political party. The National Union became an ancillary body, not a source of political power. The National Union was set up to control and restrain public opinion rather than to mobilize it, the goal was to strengthen and preserve traditional values rather than to induce a new social order. At no stage did it appear that Salazar wished it to fulfill the central role the Fascist Party had acquired in Mussolini's Italy, in fact it

1079-423: A registered electorate of 1,330,258) counting as "yes". Hugh Kay points out that the large number of abstentions might be attributable to the fact that voters were presented with a package deal to which they had to say "yes" or "no" with no opportunity to accept one clause and reject another. In this referendum, women were allowed to vote for the first time in Portugal. Their right to vote had not been obtained during

1162-449: A small group of officers drove from Lisbon to Santa Comba Dão to persuade him to be Minister of Finance. Salazar spent five days in Lisbon. The conditions he proposed to control spending were refused, he quickly resigned, and in two hours he was on a train back to Coimbra University, explaining that because of the frequent disputes and general disorder in the government, he could not do his work properly. Portugal's overriding problem in 1926

1245-446: A true monarchist, Salazar nevertheless gained most of the monarchists' support, as Manuel II of Portugal , the exiled and deposed last king of Portugal, always endorsed Salazar. Later, in 1932, it was due to Salazar's actions that the deposed king was given a state funeral. The National Syndicalists were torn between supporting the regime and denouncing it as bourgeois. They were granted enough symbolic concessions for Salazar to win over

1328-498: A unified state that spanned multiple continents. After Salazar fell into a coma in 1968, President Américo Tomás dismissed him from the position of prime minister. With the Estado Novo enabling him to exercise vast political powers, Salazar used censorship and the PIDE secret police to quell opposition. One opposition leader, Humberto Delgado , who openly challenged Salazar's regime in

1411-538: Is important to note that even in the enthusiastic early years, corporatist agencies were not at the centre of power and therefore corporatism was not the true base of the whole system. In 1934, Salazar exiled Francisco Rolão Preto as a part of a purge of the leadership of the Portuguese National Syndicalists , also known as the Camisas-azuis  [ pt ] ("Blue Shirts"). Salazar denounced

1494-449: Is that stability was bought and maintained at the expense of suppression of human rights and liberties. The corporatist state had some similarities to Italian fascism and the original corporativismo of Benito Mussolini , but considerable differences in its moral approach to governing. Although Salazar admired Mussolini and was influenced by his Labour Charter of 1927 , he distanced himself from fascist dictatorship, which he considered

1577-706: The 1958 presidential election , was first exiled and became involved in several violent actions aimed at overthrowing the regime, including the Portuguese cruise liner Santa Maria hijacking and the Beja Revolt ultimately leading to his assassination by the regime's secret police, the PIDE, in 1965. The Estado Novo collapsed during the Carnation Revolution of 1974, four years after Salazar's death. In recent decades, "new sources and methods are being employed by Portuguese historians in an attempt to come to grips with

1660-405: The 28 May 1926 coup d'état , which was welcomed by most civilian classes. At the time, the prevailing view in Portugal was that political parties were elements of division and that parliamentarianism was in crisis. This led to general support, or at least tolerance, of an authoritarian regime. As a young man, Salazar's involvement in politics stemmed from his Catholic views, which were aroused by

1743-672: The Allies . Despite being a dictatorship , Portugal under his rule took part in the founding of some international organisations. The country was one of the 12 founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, joined the European Payments Union in 1950 and was one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960; it was also a founding member of

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1826-526: The Estado Novo should be considered fascist. Stanley G. Payne wrote that, "Salazar's system might best be described as one of Authoritarian Corporatism or even authoritarian corporative liberalism", rather than fascism. Historian Juan José Linz says that fascism never took roots in Salazar' Portugal The Estado Novo of Portugal differed from fascism even more profoundly than Franco's Spain. Salazar was, in effect,

1909-408: The National Union , was formed as a subservient umbrella organisation to support the regime itself, and therefore did not have its own philosophy. At the time, according to Kay, many European countries feared what he described as "the destructive potential of communism". Salazar not only forbade Marxist parties, but also revolutionary fascist-syndicalist parties. One overriding criticism of his regime

1992-656: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1961. Under Salazar's rule, Portugal also joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1961 and began the Portuguese Colonial War . The years between the conclusion of World War II and 1973 represented the best period of economic expansion for Portugal in the 20th century. During this era, growth rates reached unprecedented levels and sustained this momentum over an extended period. Following over

2075-574: The Portuguese First Republic to study law at the University of Coimbra . During these student years in Coimbra, he developed a particular interest in finance and graduated in law with distinction, specialising in finance and economic policy. He graduated in 1914, with 19 points out of 20, and in the meantime, became an assistant professor of economic policy at the Law School. In 1917, he assumed

2158-612: The end of the monarchy , the new republican government of Portugal abolished all military orders, with the exception of the Order of the Tower and Sword. Despite the fact that the order had not been abolished, on 26 September 1917 the order was revised for the third time. The order had four classes, the highest of which was confined to the President of the Republic of Portugal. The President is ex officio

2241-425: The 4th and asked Salazar to change his mind. Prime Minister José Vicente de Freitas , who took issue with Carmona's policies, left the cabinet. Salazar remained in the cabinet as Minister of Finance, but with additional powers. Salazar stayed on as finance minister while military prime ministers came and went. From his first successful year in office, he gradually came to embody the financial and political solution to

2324-617: The Admiral (then Captain) Western rescued the Portuguese royal family from Napoleon's advancing ground forces and conveyed them to Brazil. In gratitude the King of Portugal made Thomas Western a Knight Commander in the Portuguese Order of the Tower and Sword." In accordance with the law those awarded with any degree from the Military Order of the Tower and Sword of Valor, Loyalty and Merit have

2407-467: The Algarves and its colonies, 1800. Pluricontinentalism ( Portuguese : Pluricontinentalismo ) was a geopolitical concept, positing that Portugal was a transcontinental country and a unitary nation-state consisting of continental Portugal and its overseas provinces . With origins as early as the 14th century, pluricontinentalism gained official state sponsorship in the Estado Novo regime. It

2490-547: The First Republic, despite feminist efforts, and even in the referendum vote, secondary education was a requirement for female voters, whereas males only needed to be able to read and write. The year 1933 marked a watershed in Portuguese history. Under Salazar's supervision, Teotónio Pereira , the Sub-Secretary of State of Corporations and Social Welfare, reporting directly to Salazar, enacted extensive legislation that shaped

2573-467: The Grand Collar to foreign heads of state and to those of exceptional achievements while maintaining the automatic appointments of presidents of Portugal at the end of their terms. The Order of the Tower and Sword, as awarded by the Portuguese government today, comes in six classes: Rear Admiral Thomas Western was one of the first to be awarded a Knighthood of the Order of the Tower and Sword. "In 1807

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2656-545: The National Syndicalists as "inspired by certain foreign models" (meaning German Nazism ) and condemned their "exaltation of youth, the cult of force through direct action, the principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, [and] the propensity for organising masses behind a single leader" as fundamental differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the Estado Novo . Salazar's own party,

2739-514: The Nationalists called Lisbon "the port of Castile". Later, Franco spoke of Salazar in glowing terms in an interview in the Le Figaro newspaper: The most complete statesman, the one most worthy of respect, that I have known is Salazar. I regard him as an extraordinary personality for his intelligence, his political sense and his humility. His only defect is probably his modesty. On 8 September 1936,

2822-422: The Order's Grand Master and a member of the Order, Grand Cross. The degree of Grand Collar was added in 1939. The Grand Collar was meant for heads of state with notable military deeds, with Spanish General Franco the only head of state to be awarded the Grand Collar under these terms. The order was reformed in 1962 with the Grand Collar being made exclusively open to former presidents of Portugal, an exception

2905-1259: The Portuguese court was living in Brazil and Rio de Janeiro served as the capital for the country. The idea of pluricontinentalism quickly collapsed following the Carnation Revolution in 1974. People associated with pluricontinentalism [ edit ] António Vieira Luís da Cunha Maria I of Portugal John VI of Portugal Pedro IV of Portugal António de Oliveira Salazar See also [ edit ] Eurasianism Atlanticism Lusotropicalism Lusosphere List of former transcontinental countries Luso-Africans Assimilados Lançados Mestiços Órfãs do Rei Retornados References [ edit ] ^ Dicionário Priberam da Língua Portuguesa: Pluricontinental ^ Portugal's First Domino: 'Pluricontinentalism' and Colonial War in Guiné-Bissau, 1963–1974, by Norrie Macqueen, 1999 Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pluricontinentalism&oldid=1254829372 " Categories : Portuguese Empire Imperialism Estado Novo (Portugal) History of

2988-526: The Portuguese government to Franco's government, where he achieved great prestige and influence. In April 1938, Pereira officially become a full-rank Portuguese ambassador to Spain, and he remained in this post throughout World War II. Just a few days before the end of the Spanish Civil War, on 17 March 1939, Portugal and Spain signed the Iberian Pact , a non-aggression treaty that marked the beginning of

3071-455: The Republic lasted less than 10 weeks and the longest-ruling government lasted little over a year. Revolution in Portugal became a byword in Europe. The cost of living increased twenty-fivefold, while the currency fell to a 1 ⁄ 33 part of its gold value. Portugal's public finances entered a critical phase, having been under imminent threat of default since at least the 1890s. The gaps between

3154-611: The Royal Family to reach Brazil, but who were ineligible for the other Portuguese orders due to their religion. In 1832, Peter, Duke of Braganza (who was then Regent for his daughter Queen Maria II), reformed the Order which now became the Ancient and Most Noble Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valour, Loyalty and Merit . In 1896, the class of Grand Officer was inserted between Grand Cross and Commander. On 15 October 1910, after

3237-453: The aid of censorship and repression directed against those outside of it. Those perceived to be genuine fascists were jailed or exiled. Conservative Catholics were Salazar's earliest and most loyal supporters, whereas conservative republicans who could not be co-opted became his most dangerous opponents during the early period. They attempted several coups, but never presented a united front, consequently these attempts were easily repressed. Never

3320-491: The auspices of the League of Nations , but the conditions were considered unacceptable. With Portugal under the threat of an imminent financial collapse, Salazar finally agreed to become its 81st Finance Minister on 26 April 1928 after the republican and Freemason Óscar Carmona was elected president. However, before accepting the position, he personally secured from Carmona a categorical assurance that as finance minister he would have

3403-784: The beginning of the Spanish Civil War, Salazar took up additional portfolios as minister of war and minister of foreign affairs, while retaining direction of the ministry of finance, thus concentrating even more power in his hands. Salazar supported Francisco Franco and the Nationalists in their war against the Second Republic forces , as well as the anarchists and the communists. The Nationalists lacked access to seaports early on, so Salazar's Portugal helped them receive armaments shipments from abroad, including ordnance when certain Nationalist forces virtually ran out of ammunition. Consequently,

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3486-401: The bishops of the country argued in a collective letter that it was an "act of God" that had preserved Salazar's life. The official car was replaced by an armoured Chrysler Imperial . Sought by the PIDE , Emídio Santana fled to Britain, where he was arrested by British police and returned to Portugal. He was then sentenced to 16 years in prison. Order of the Tower and Sword The order

3569-485: The chairs of economic policy and finance at the university by appointment of professor José Alberto dos Reis . In the following year, Salazar was awarded his doctorate. Salazar was twenty-one years old at the time of the revolution of 5 October 1910, which overthrew the Portuguese monarchy and instituted the First Portuguese Republic . The political institutions of the First Republic lasted until 1926, when it

3652-475: The chamber and never returned, struck by the disorder he witnessed and a feeling of futility. Salazar was convinced that liberal individualism had led to fragmentation of society and a perversion of the democratic process. After the coup d'état of 28 May 1926 which established the Ditadura Nacional regime, Salazar briefly joined the government of José Mendes Cabeçadas as Minister of Finance . On 11 June,

3735-473: The civil service and censorship was severely tightened. Every government functionary was forced to declare that he repudiated communism. This crusade aimed to root out not only communists but also the democratic opposition. The convicted sailors from the 1936 naval revolt were the first to be sent to the Tarrafal prison camp established by Salazar in the Cape Verde Islands to house political prisoners. It

3818-439: The corporatist structure and initiated a comprehensive social welfare system. This system was equally anti-capitalist and anti-socialist. The corporatisation of the working class was accompanied by strict legislation regulating business. Workers' organisations were subordinated to state control, but granted a legitimacy that they had never before enjoyed and were made beneficiaries of a variety of new social programs. Nevertheless, it

3901-638: The dictator of Portugal, but he preferred a passive public and a limited state where social power remained in the hands of the Church, the army, and the big landowners. Samuel Hoare , the British Ambassador in Madrid during the war, stated that Salazar detested Hitler and all his works. However, he said that "Europe owes him the great service of having pushed back the frontiers of communism with astonishing energy and exciting muscle. I only fear that he will go too far in

3984-549: The dictatorship, which lasted forty-eight years." Salazar was born in Vimieiro , near Santa Comba Dão ( Viseu District ), to a family of modest income on 28 April 1889. His father, a small landowner, had started as an agricultural labourer and became the manager for the Perestrelos, a wealthy family of rural landowners of the region of Santa Comba Dão who possessed lands and other assets scattered between Viseu and Coimbra . He

4067-722: The economic and social field." And talking to a Romanian diplomat: "... in spite of everything, Hitler was a political genius, who had realized a colossal work." Historian Robert Paxton observes that one of the main problems in defining fascism is that it was widely mimicked. He wrote, "In fascism's heyday, in the 1930s, many regimes that were not functionally fascist borrowed elements of fascist decor in order to lend themselves an aura of force, vitality, and mass mobilization." He went on to observe that Salazar "crushed Portuguese fascism after he had copied some of its techniques of popular mobilization". Political scientists Manuel Braga da Cruz and Philippe Schmitter argue that Salazar's regime

4150-482: The fact that they were contrary to his actions. He was a frequent contributor to journals concerned with social studies, especially the weekly O Imparcial , which was directed by his friend (and later Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon) Manuel Gonçalves Cerejeira . Local press described him as "one of the most powerful minds of the new generation". In 1921, Salazar was persuaded to stand as a candidate for election to parliament, though he did so reluctantly. He appeared once in

4233-747: The following rights: Grand Cross: Grand Collar Grand Cross: Grand Officer: Commander: Officer: Knight: Pluricontinentalism Historical Portuguese colonial unity concept [REDACTED] This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources:   "Pluricontinentalism"  –  news   · newspapers   · books   · scholar   · JSTOR ( May 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) [REDACTED] United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and

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4316-505: The instability and perceived failure of the First Republic , but they had no idea how to address the critical challenges of the hour. Within one year, armed with special powers, Salazar balanced the budget and stabilised Portugal's currency. Salazar produced the first of many budgetary surpluses. He promoted civilian administration in the authoritarian regime when the politics of more and more countries were becoming militarised. Salazar's aim

4399-708: The moderates, but the rest were repressed by the political police. Salazar based his political philosophy on a close interpretation of the Catholic social doctrine , much like the contemporary regime of Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria. The economic system, known as corporatism , was alleged to be based on similar interpretations of the papal encyclicals Rerum novarum ( Leo XIII , 1891) and Quadragesimo anno ( Pius XI , 1931), which were meant to prevent class struggle and transform economic concerns secondary to social values. Rerum novarum argued that labor associations were part of

4482-415: The natural order, like the family. The right of men to organise into trade unions and to engage in collective bargaining , was thus inherent and could not be denied by employers or the state. Quadragesimo anno provided the blue print for the erection of the corporatist system. But the practice was that stability of the regime was maintained by suppressing human rights and liberties. A new constitution

4565-406: The new anti-clerical stance of the First Republic. He became a member of the non-politically affiliated Catholic movement Centro Académico de Democracia Cristã  [ pt ] (Academic Centre for Christian Democracy). Salazar rejected the monarchists because he felt that they were opposed to the social doctrines espoused by Pope Leo XIII to which it is said he was very sympathetic, despite

4648-424: The official workers' syndicates that replaced free trade unions. The new constitution introduced by Salazar established an anti-parliamentarian and authoritarian government that would last until 1974. The president was to be elected by popular vote for a period of seven years. On paper, the new document vested sweeping, almost dictatorial powers in the hands of the president, including the power to appoint and dismiss

4731-399: The organisation of religious processions. The new law outraged the republicans, triggered a cabinet crisis, and Figueiredo threatened to resign. Salazar advised Figueiredo against resigning, but told his friend he would join him in his decision. Figueiredo did resign, and Salazar – at that time hospitalised due to a broken leg – followed suit on 3 July. Carmona went personally to the hospital on

4814-576: The policies he wished to implement. The Polícia de Vigilância e Defesa do Estado (" State Surveillance and Defense Police ") was established in 1933. It was replaced in 1945 by the remodeled Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado (PIDE) ("International and State Defence Police"), which lasted until 1969 (and from that year to 1974 under Marcelo Caetano , it was the Direção-Geral de Segurança (DGS) (" General Security Directorate "). The secret police existed not only to protect national security in

4897-463: The primary school in his small village and later went to another primary school in Viseu . At age 11, he won a free place at Viseu's seminary , where he studied for eight years, from 1900 to 1908. Salazar considered becoming a priest, but like many who entered the seminary very young, he decided not to proceed to the priesthood after receiving holy orders. He went to Coimbra in 1910 during the first years of

4980-637: The prime minister. The president was elevated to a position of preeminence as the "balance wheel", the defender and ultimate arbiter of national politics. President Carmona, however, had allowed Salazar more or less a free hand since appointing him prime minister and continued to do so; Carmona and his successors would largely be figureheads as he wielded the true power. Howard J. Wiarda argues that Salazar achieved his position of power not just because of constitutional stipulations, but also because of his character: domineering, absolutist, ambitious, hardworking and intellectually brilliant. The corporatist constitution

5063-515: The regime were subjected to beatings and torture. It was a city area, in the middle of Lisbon's downtown, and the screams could be heard in the street. On August 1, 1958, the Brazilian ambassador herself ( Álvaro Lins ' wife) witnessed a detainee fall from the third floor of the political police headquarters. The Spanish Civil War , which began in July 1936, was the ostensible reason for the radicalisation of

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5146-399: The regime. Internally, the regime had to face a monarchist revolt in 1935, a threatened leftist coup in 1936 and several bombs and conspiracies in 1936 and 1937, including an attempt to assassinate Salazar in 1937. At the same time, Spanish Republican agents were active in Lisbon and Spanish troops were deployed on Portugal's vulnerable border, severely threatening Portuguese sovereignty. At

5229-466: The rich and the poor continued to widen. The regime led Portugal to enter World War I in 1916, a move that only aggravated the perilous state of affairs in the country. Concurrently, the Catholic Church was hounded by the anti-clerical Freemasons of the Republic and political assassination and terrorism became commonplace. Between 1920 and 1925, according to official police figures, 325 bombs burst in

5312-597: The role of the Church was social, not political, and negotiated the Concordat of 1940 that kept the church at arm's length. One of the mottos of the Salazar regime was Deus, Pátria e Família ("God, Fatherland and Family"), although he never turned Portugal into a confessional state . Salazar supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War and played a key role in keeping Portugal and Spain neutral during World War II while still providing aid and assistance to

5395-405: The streets of Lisbon. The British diplomat Sir George Rendel said that he could not describe the "political background as anything but deplorable ... very different from the orderly, prosperous and well-managed country that it later became under the government of Senhor Salazar". Salazar would keep in mind the political chaos of this time when he later ruled Portugal. Public discontent led to

5478-415: The turmoil of the military dictatorship, which had not produced a clear leader. Finally, on 5 July 1932, President Carmona appointed Salazar as the 100th prime minister of Portugal, after which he began to operate closer to the mainstream of political sentiment in his country. The authoritarian government consisted of a right-wing coalition, and he was able to co-opt the moderates of each political current with

5561-546: Was Christian corporatism and social corporatism as well as his inclusion of both reformist and traditionalist currents. The legislature, called the Assembleia Nacional  [ pt ] , was restricted to members of the National Union . It could initiate legislation, but only concerning matters that did not require government expenditures. The parallel Corporative Chamber included representatives of municipalities, religious, cultural and professional groups and of

5644-418: Was approved in the national Portuguese constitutional referendum of 19 March 1933. A draft had been published one year before, and the public was invited to state any objections in the press. These tended to stay in the realm of generalities and only a handful of people, less than 6,000, voted against the new constitution. The new constitution was approved with 99.5% of the vote, but with 488,840 abstentions (in

5727-508: Was drafted by a group of lawyers, businessmen, clerics and university professors, with Salazar the leading spirit and Marcelo Caetano also playing a major role. The constitution created the Estado Novo ("New State"), in theory a corporatist state representing interest groups rather than individuals. He wanted a system in which the people would be represented through corporations, rather than through political parties, and where national interest

5810-406: Was given priority over sectional claims. Salazar thought that the party system had failed irrevocably in Portugal. Unlike Mussolini or Hitler , Salazar never had the intention to create a party-state. Salazar was against the whole-party concept and in 1930 he created the National Union a single-party, which he marketed as a "non-party", announcing that the National Union would be the antithesis of

5893-521: Was involved in clandestine activities against the dictatorship, attempted to assassinate Salazar on 4 July 1937. Salazar was on his way to Mass at a private chapel in a friend's house on Barbosa du Bocage Avenue in Lisbon. As he stepped out of his Buick limousine, a bomb hidden in an iron case exploded only 3 metres (10 ft) away. The blast left Salazar untouched, but his chauffeur was rendered deaf. An inept secret police made several arrests and beat five innocent people till they confessed. A year later,

5976-416: Was its enormous public debt, much of which was owed to foreign entities. Several times between 1926 and 1928, Salazar turned down appointment to the finance ministry. He pleaded ill-health, devotion to his aged parents and a preference for the academic cloisters. In 1927, under the ministry of Sinel de Cordes , the public deficit kept on growing. The government tried to obtain loans from Baring Brothers under

6059-409: Was labeled the "slow death camp" where dozens of political prisoners (mostly communists, but also adherents of other ideologies), were imprisoned under inhumane unhealthy conditions in exceedingly hot weather and died. Historians say that 60 people died in jails for political reasons during Salazar's nearly 40-year regime. In January 1938, Salazar appointed Pedro Teotónio Pereira as special liaison of

6142-559: Was made in 1973 for Brazilian President Emílio Garrastazu Médici by decree-law. The Organic Law of the Honorary Orders of 1986 kept the exclusivity of the Grand Collar for former presidents of Portugal. Exceptions to this rule were made in 1993 for Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and in 2000 for King Juan Carlos I of Spain, who were awarded the Grand Collar by special decree-law. The Law of Honorary Orders of 2011 opened

6225-455: Was marked by political repression, it gradually "became less repressive and eventually opened up somewhat, not to liberalism, but to greater pluralism and less strict controls". According to Juan José Linz , Salazar's Portugal was "an authoritarian regime with its own distinctive politics and dynamics" that was neither fascist nor totalitarian. In his analysis of the regime, he makes following points: Salazar relied on secret police to enforce

6308-456: Was meant to be a platform of conservatism, not a revolutionary vanguard. Ministers, diplomats and civil servants were never compelled to join the National Union. Portuguese historian Ernesto C. Leal described Salazar's ideology as eclectic and syncretic , and primarily representing a combination of authoritarian nationalist, conservative and anti-liberal tendencies. According to Leal, the most unique characteristic of Salazar's political thinking

6391-597: Was not fascist as it lacked most aspects of fascism – unlike fascism, Salazarism had no anti-bourgeois or anti-capitalist motivations, there was no determination of the state apparatus by an armed party, and loyalty to Salazar "was more a case of condescending obedience than enthusiastic support on the part of subordinates". Da Cruz and Schmitter also note that Salazarism was marked by nationalist and conservative policies rather than expansionist ambitions. Additionally, Howard J. Wiarda observes that Salazar did not pursue genocidal policies, and while Salazar's Portugal

6474-530: Was originally created by King Afonso V of Portugal in 1459, under the name of the Order of the Sword , inspired by the legend that Arab rule in Africa would end when a Christian prince would besiege the fortress at Fez . Knighthood in the Order of the Sword was given as reward to those who participated in the conquests and battles in Africa. The order fell into disuse after the conquest of Tangiers and Asilah . The order

6557-501: Was replaced by a military dictatorship. This was first known as the "Ditadura Militar" (Military Dictatorship) and then, from 1928, as the " Ditadura Nacional " (National Dictatorship). The era of the First Republic has been described as one of "continual anarchy, government corruption, rioting and pillage, assassinations, arbitrary imprisonment and religious persecution". It witnessed the inauguration of eight presidents, 44 cabinet re-organisations and 21 revolutions. The first government of

6640-522: Was revived on 29 November 1808, by Prince Regent John, later John VI of Portugal . It commemorated the safe arrival of the Royal Family in the Portuguese colony of Brazil , after Napoleon had invaded Portugal. Its full title was "the Royal Order of the Tower and Sword". It was available to both Portuguese and foreigners and for military, political or civilian achievement. Among the intended recipients were subjects of His Britannic Majesty, who had assisted

6723-448: Was the de-politicisation of society, rather than the mobilisation of the populace. Opposed to communism , socialism , syndicalism and liberalism , Salazar's rule was conservative , corporatist and nationalist in nature; it was also capitalist to some extent although in a very conditioned way until the beginning of the final stage of his rule, in the 1960s. Salazar distanced himself from Nazism and fascism, which he described as

6806-461: Was the idea that Portugal was not a colonial empire ( Portuguese Empire ) but a singular nation-state spread across continents (hence the name). As such, overseas possessions were a part of Portuguese identity. The first time that Portugal was a pluricontinental country was during the reign of Maria I of Portugal , with the creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves , when

6889-793: Was the only male child of two fifth cousins, António de Oliveira (1839–1932) and his wife Maria do Resgate Salazar (1845–1926). According to Portuguese naming customs , which place the mother's surname first, Salazar's name would have been "António Salazar de Oliveira" – a pattern followed by his four sisters – but, for reasons that remain unclear, the order of his surnames was reversed, and he thus became "António de Oliveira Salazar". His four older sisters were Maria do Resgate Salazar de Oliveira, an elementary school teacher; Elisa Salazar de Oliveira; Maria Leopoldina Salazar de Oliveira; and Laura Salazar de Oliveira, who in 1887 married Abel Pais de Sousa, brother of Mário Pais de Sousa  [ pt ] , who served as Salazar's Interior Minister. Salazar attended

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