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131-404: An anti-corruption agency is a special police agency specialised in fighting political corruption and engaging in general anti-corruption activities. Most are founded by statute, but some have a constitutional status. Police The police are a constituted body of persons empowered by a state with the aim of enforcing the law and protecting the public order as well as

262-402: A cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing ; his police were to act as

393-449: A 10-mile radius of London. The word police was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression". Before the 19th century, the first use of the word police recorded in government documents in

524-607: A cadet branch of Chu's royal house of Mi . Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu ( 屈 ) clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the Ruo'ao rebellion , Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou ( 鬭 ) and Cheng ( 成 ). Progenitors of Chu such as viscount Xiong Yi were said to originate from the Jing Mountains ; a chain of mountains located in today's Hubei province . Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to

655-452: A chain of command, with constables and sergeants managing lower-ranking birri , that they wore uniforms, that they were housed together with other employees of the podestà together with a number of servants including cooks and stable-keepers, that their parentage and places of origin were meticulously recorded, and that most were not native to Bologna, with many coming from outside Italy. The English system of maintaining public order since

786-410: A common colloquial term used both by the public and police officers to refer to their profession. First attested in English in the early 15th century, originally in a range of senses encompassing '(public) policy; state; public order', the word police comes from Middle French police ('public order, administration, government'), in turn from Latin politia , which is the romanization of

917-485: A defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from the military and other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing. Police forces are usually public sector services, funded through taxes. Law enforcement is only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but

1048-570: A distinct " Chinese " culture. Based on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the Yellow River basin. However, subsequently, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the Baiyue lands that it conquered to the south and east, developing a blended culture compared to the northern plains. During the Western Zhou period, the difference between

1179-453: A formalization and regularization of existing policing methods, similar to the unofficial 'thief-takers'. What made them different was their formal attachment to the Bow Street magistrates' office, and payment by the magistrate with funds from the central government. They worked out of Fielding's office and court at No. 4 Bow Street, and did not patrol but served writs and arrested offenders on

1310-676: A highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. London was fast reaching a size unprecedented in world history, due to the onset of the Industrial Revolution . It became clear that the locally maintained system of volunteer constables and "watchmen" was ineffective, both in detecting and preventing crime. A parliamentary committee was appointed to investigate the system of policing in London . Upon Sir Robert Peel being appointed as Home Secretary in 1822, he established

1441-482: A local prefectural office. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan. In Babylonia , law enforcement tasks were initially entrusted to individuals with military backgrounds or imperial magnates during the Old Babylonian period, but eventually, law enforcement was delegated to officers known as paqūdus , who were present in both cities and rural settlements. A paqūdu

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1572-615: A long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the Chu–Han Contention . The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the Han dynasty and was later honored with the temple name Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat. Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with

1703-412: A meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng ordered Li Xin and Meng Wu to lead the army against Chu. The Chu army, led by Xiang Yan , secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching

1834-723: A model for the police forces in many countries, including the United States and most of the British Empire . Bobbies can still be found in many parts of the Commonwealth of Nations . In Australia , organized law enforcement emerged soon after British colonization began in 1788. The first law enforcement organizations were the Night Watch and Row Boat Guard, which were formed in 1789 to police Sydney . Their ranks were drawn from well-behaved convicts deported to Australia. The Night Watch

1965-486: A modern county , which were overseen by an official known as a shire-reeve, from which the term sheriff evolved. The shire-reeve had the power of posse comitatus , meaning he could gather the men of his shire to pursue a criminal. Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the tithing system was tightened with the frankpledge system. By the end of the 13th century, the office of constable developed. Constables had

2096-535: A particular neighborhood. This system typically did not apply to the Samurai themselves. Samurai clans were expected to resolve disputes among each other through negotiation, or when that failed through duels. Only rarely did Samurai bring their disputes to a magistrate or answer to police. In Joseon -era Korea, the Podocheong emerged as a police force with the power to arrest and punish criminals. Established in 1469 as

2227-614: A police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution". Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation. With the initial investment of £4,200, the new force the Marine Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on

2358-518: A protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign. The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the excavated bamboo slips of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu aspired to overthrow the painful yoke of Qin rule and re-establishing

2489-632: A riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying. Although bronze inscriptions from the ancient state of Chu show little linguistic differences from the "Elegant Speech" (yǎyán 雅言) during the Eastern Zhou period , the variety of Old Chinese spoken in Chu has long been assumed to reflect lexical borrowings and syntactical interferences from non-Sinitic substrates , which

2620-578: A second and more effective committee, and acted upon its findings. Royal assent to the Metropolitan Police Act 1829 was given and the Metropolitan Police Service was established on September 29, 1829, in London . Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham , who called for a strong and centralised, but politically neutral, police force for

2751-484: A separate state. The attitude was captured in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: "Though Chu has but three clans , Qin shall fall by Chu's hand" ( 楚雖三戶, 亡秦必楚 ). After Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor ( Shi Huangdi ) and reigned briefly, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of

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2882-442: A surprise offensive and destroying Li Xin army. Upon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng replaced Li with Wang Jian, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing Meng Wu beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce

3013-463: A swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan ( 蕲南 ; northwest of present-day Qichun in Hubei ) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat. The next year, in 223 BC, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King Fuchu was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led

3144-478: A temporary organization, its role solidified into a permanent one. In Sweden , local governments were responsible for law and order by way of a royal decree issued by Magnus III in the 13th century. The cities financed and organized groups of watchmen who patrolled the streets. In the late 1500s in Stockholm, patrol duties were in large part taken over by a special corps of salaried city guards . The city guard

3275-493: Is also cited as the primary legislation regulating the policing of the country between the Norman Conquest and the Metropolitan Police Act 1829 . From about 1500, private watchmen were funded by private individuals and organisations to carry out police functions. They were later nicknamed 'Charlies', probably after the reigning monarch King Charles II. Thief-takers were also rewarded for catching thieves and returning

3406-515: The Songs of Chu , historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the Guodian slips , and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless Legalist state of Qin. Even though

3537-524: The se was preferred over the zither , while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states. Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba , Yue , and the Baiyue . Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects. Some archaeological records of

3668-712: The Ancient Greek πολιτεία ( politeia ) 'citizenship, administration, civil polity'. This is derived from πόλις ( polis ) 'city'. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period . In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by

3799-565: The Areopagus . In Sparta , the Ephors were in charge of maintaining public order as judges, and they used Sparta's Hippeis , a 300-member Royal guard of honor, as their enforcers. There were separate authorities supervising women, children, and agricultural issues. Sparta also had a secret police force called the crypteia to watch the large population of helots , or slaves. In the Roman Empire ,

3930-471: The Han River . After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BC but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler Xiong Tong became the ruler of Chu. Under the reign of King Zhuang , Chu reached

4061-666: The Inca Empire , officials called curaca enforced the law among the households they were assigned to oversee, with inspectors known as tokoyrikoq ( lit.   ' he who sees all ' ) also stationed throughout the provinces to keep order. In medieval Spain , Santas Hermandades , or 'holy brotherhoods', peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile . As medieval Spanish kings often could not offer adequate protection, protective municipal leagues began to emerge in

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4192-663: The Nile River , and guarding administrative buildings. By the Eighteenth Dynasty of the New Kingdom period, an elite desert-ranger police force called the Medjay was used to protect valuable areas, especially areas of pharaonic interest like capital cities, royal cemeteries, and the borders of Egypt. Though they are best known for their protection of the royal palaces and tombs in Thebes and

4323-553: The River Thames to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo in imports alone. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France , was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that

4454-469: The Scythian Archers (the ῥαβδοῦχοι 'rod-bearers'), a group of about 300 Scythian slaves, was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control , and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves. Athenian police forces were supervised by

4585-529: The Thames River Police together with new laws including police powers; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames . It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City , Dublin , and Sydney . Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using

4716-683: The War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile established the centrally-organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835. The Vehmic courts of Germany provided some policing in

4847-697: The Xiongnu through heqin intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. The core Chu territories centered in Pengcheng was granted first to general Han Xin and then to Liu Bang's brother Liu Jiao as the Kingdom of Chu . By the time of Emperor Wu of Han , the southern folk culture and aesthetics were mixed with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create

4978-451: The enforcement of authoritarian rule . A police force may also be referred to as a police department, police service, constabulary , gendarmerie , crime prevention , protective services, law enforcement agency , civil guard, or civic guard. Members may be referred to as police officers , troopers , sheriffs , constables , rangers , peace officers or civic/civil guards. Ireland differs from other English-speaking countries by using

5109-425: The public itself. This commonly includes ensuring the safety , health , and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime and civil disorder . Their lawful powers encompass arrest and the use of force legitimized by the state via the monopoly on violence . The term is most commonly associated with the police forces of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within

5240-578: The " continental model" of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state. In 1863, the Metropolitan Police were issued with the distinctive custodian helmet , and in 1884 they switched to the use of whistles that could be heard from much further away. The Metropolitan Police became

5371-550: The Bow Street office. Under John Fielding, the institution of the Bow Street Runners gained more and more recognition from the government, although the force was only funded intermittently in the years that followed. In 1763, the Bow Street Horse Patrol was established to combat highway robbery, funded by a government grant. The Bow Street Runners served as the guiding principle for the way that policing developed over

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5502-814: The Caliphate of Uthman . The Shurta is known to have existed in the Abbasid and Umayyad Caliphates . Their primary roles were to act as police and internal security forces but they could also be used for other duties such as customs and tax enforcement, rubbish collection, and acting as bodyguards for governors. From the 10th century, the importance of the Shurta declined as the army assumed internal security tasks while cities became more autonomous and handled their own policing needs locally, such as by hiring watchmen. In addition, officials called muhtasibs were responsible for supervising bazaars and economic activity in general in

5633-502: The Central plains. However, this image originated with the later development of Chu relative to the Central plains, and the stereotype was retrospectively cultivated by Confucian scholars in the Qin dynasty, to indirectly criticise the ruling regime, and the Han dynasty as a means of curbing their ideological opponents who were associated with such cultural practices. As the founder of the Han dynasty

5764-499: The Chu appear at Mawangdui . After the Han dynasty , some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the "lewd" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture. Chu artisanship includes color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where

5895-581: The Chu capital Danyang was located at the junction of the Dan and Xi Rivers near present-day Xichuan County , Henan, but later moved to Ying . The house of Chu originally bore the ancestral temple surname Nai ( 嬭 OC: /*rneːlʔ/) which was later written as Mi ( 芈 OC: /*meʔ/). They also bore the lineage name Yan ( 酓 OC: /*qlamʔ/, /*qʰɯːm/) which would later be written Xiong ( 熊 OC: /*ɢʷlɯm/). According to legends recounted in Sima Qian 's Records of

6026-459: The Chu may have acquired as a result of its southern migration into what Tian Jizhou believed to be a Kra–Dai or (para-) Hmong–Mien area in southern China. Recent excavated texts, corroborated by dialect words recorded in the Fangyan , further demonstrated substrate influences, but there are competing hypotheses on their genealogical affiliation. Noticing that both 荆 Jīng and 楚 Chǔ refer to

6157-555: The Chu tomb in Xichuan, Henan Province are complex in shape. Dated to the mid sixth century BC, it was one of the early confirmed lost-wax cast artifacts discovered in China proper. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct burial objects , such as colorful lacquerware , iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in bronze vessel offerings . A common Chu motif

6288-649: The Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal defense against states of central plain . Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain. Yunmeng Ze in Jianghan Plain was an immense freshwater lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng ( 夢 ), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun ( 雲 ). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, Jianli , Shishou , Macheng , Huanggang , and Anlu . Shaoxi Pass

6419-421: The French one as a threat to the people's liberty and balanced constitution in favor of an arbitrary and tyrannical government. Law enforcement was mostly up to the private citizens, who had the right and duty to prosecute crimes in which they were involved or in which they were not. At the cry of 'murder!' or 'stop thief!' everyone was entitled and obliged to join the pursuit. Once the criminal had been apprehended,

6550-516: The Grand Historian , the ruling family of Chu descended from the Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu . Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui ( 吳回 ) was put in charge of fire by Emperor Ku and given the title Zhurong . Wuhui's son Luzhong ( 陸終 ) had six sons, all born by Caesarian section . The youngest, Jilian , adopted the ancestral surname Mi . Jilian's descendant Yuxiong

6681-689: The Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary . The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle . By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men. In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on

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6812-494: The Irish language terms Garda (singular) and Gardaí (plural), for both the national police force and its members. The word police is the most universal and similar terms can be seen in many non-English speaking countries. Numerous slang terms exist for the police. Many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymologies. One of the oldest, cop , has largely lost its slang connotations and become

6943-582: The Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountains are the Tu ( 塗 ) mountains. In the north-east part of Chu are the Dabie mountains ; the drainage divide of Huai river and Yangtse river . The first capital of Chu, Danyang ( 丹陽 ) was located in today's Zhijiang , Hubei province. Ying ( 郢 ), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name Jingzhou . In Chu's northern border lies

7074-563: The King's bailiffs were responsible for law and order until the establishment of counties in the 1630s. Up to the early 18th century, the level of state involvement in law enforcement in Britain was low. Although some law enforcement officials existed in the form of constables and watchmen, there was no organized police force. A professional police force like the one already present in France would have been ill-suited to Britain, which saw examples such as

7205-697: The Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' War , and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary ( Old French : Connétablie ), was under the command of the Constable of France . The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under Francis I (reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the constabulary. The resulting force

7336-470: The Norman conquest was a private system of tithings known as the mutual pledge system. This system was introduced under Alfred the Great . Communities were divided into groups of ten families called tithings, each of which was overseen by a chief tithingman. Every household head was responsible for the good behavior of his own family and the good behavior of other members of his tithing. Every male aged 12 and over

7467-419: The Old Kingdom collapsed, ushering in the First Intermediate Period , it is thought that the same model applied. During this period, Bedouins were hired to guard the borders and protect trade caravans. During the Middle Kingdom period, a professional police force was created with a specific focus on enforcing the law, as opposed to the previous informal arrangement of using warriors as police. The police force

7598-416: The Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns. After the French Revolution , Napoléon I reorganized the police in Paris and other cities with more than 5,000 inhabitants on February 17, 1800, as the Prefecture of Police . On March 12, 1829, a government decree created

7729-408: The Qin corvée ; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China . The Dazexiang Uprising occurred in 209 BC under the leadership of a Chu peasant, Chen Sheng , who proclaimed himself "King of Rising Chu" ( Zhangchu ). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of

7860-449: The Qin army against Wuyue around the mouth of the Yangtze , capturing the descendants of the royal family of Yue . These conquered territories became the Kuaiji Prefecture of the Qin Empire. At their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu ( 黑夫 ) and Jing ( 惊 ), tell of

7991-407: The Qin general Sima Cuo led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering Han and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that "conquering Shu is conquering Chu" and, "once Chu is eliminated,

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8122-431: The Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister Shang Yang , installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might. Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu,

8253-488: The United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798. Following early police forces established in 1779 and 1788 in Glasgow , Scotland , the Glasgow authorities successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland ,

8384-448: The Zhao general Pang Nuan ( 庞煖 ) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic Hangu Pass but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed Lord Chunshen for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun , farther away from the threat of Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along

8515-449: The absence of strong state institutions. Such courts had a chairman who presided over a session and lay judges who passed judgement and carried out law enforcement tasks. Among the responsibilities that lay judges had were giving formal warnings to known troublemakers, issuing warrants, and carrying out executions. In the medieval Islamic Caliphates , police were known as Shurta . Bodies termed Shurta existed perhaps as early as

8646-439: The army played a major role in providing security. Roman soldiers detached from their legions and posted among civilians carried out law enforcement tasks. The Praetorian Guard , an elite army unit which was primarily an Imperial bodyguard and intelligence-gathering unit, could also act as a riot police force if required. Local watchmen were hired by cities to provide some extra security. Lictors , civil servants whose primary duty

8777-430: The authority of the magistrates, travelling nationwide to apprehend criminals. Fielding wanted to regulate and legalize law enforcement activities due to the high rate of corruption and mistaken or malicious arrests seen with the system that depended mainly on private citizens and state rewards for law enforcement. Henry Fielding's work was carried on by his brother, Justice John Fielding , who succeeded him as magistrate in

8908-437: The capital had grown to almost one million inhabitants, 14 wards were created; the wards were protected by seven squads of 1,000 men called vigiles , who acted as night watchmen and firemen. In addition to firefighting, their duties included apprehending petty criminals, capturing runaway slaves, guarding the baths at night, and stopping disturbances of the peace. As well as the city of Rome, vigiles were also stationed in

9039-410: The capital into the territory of the former state of Ruo . Chu began to strengthen Yue in modern Zhejiang to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by King Fuchai of Wu until he released their king Goujian , who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu. Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BC and overran Cai to

9170-402: The cities, each ward was under the command of a Superintendent of Police, known as a Kuipan . Police officers also acted as prosecutors and carried out punishments imposed by the courts. They were required to know the court procedure for prosecuting cases and advancing accusations. In ancient Israel and Judah , officials with the responsibility of making declarations to the people, guarding

9301-553: The city of Paris , then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667, created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties". This office

9432-574: The country will be united". The importance of Shu in the Sichuan Basin was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River , leading directly into the Chu heartland. King Huiwen of Qin opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BC, Qin invaded and conquered Shu and nearby Ba , expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following

9563-504: The culture of Chu and the Central Plains states to the north was negligible. Only in the late Spring and Autumn period does Chu culture begin to diverge, preserving some older aspects of the culture and developing new phenomena. It also absorbed some elements from annexed areas. The culture of Chu had significant internal diversity from locality to locality. Chu, like Qin and Yan , was often described as being not as cultured by people in

9694-403: The emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. Local citizens could report minor judicial offenses against them such as robberies at

9825-827: The fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun in 241 BC. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping in 260 BC. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states. By 225 BC, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan , and Qi . Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BC, Ying Zheng called for

9956-417: The fine. A group of ten tithings was known as a "hundred" and every hundred was overseen by an official known as a reeve . Hundreds ensured that if a criminal escaped to a neighboring village, he could be captured and returned to his village. If a criminal was not apprehended, then the entire hundred could be fined. The hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires , the rough equivalent of

10087-675: The first uniformed police in France , known as sergents de ville ('city sergeants'), which the Paris Prefecture of Police's website claims were the first uniformed policemen in the world. In feudal Japan, samurai warriors were charged with enforcing the law among commoners. Some Samurai acted as magistrates called Machi-bugyō , who acted as judges, prosecutors, and as chief of police. Beneath them were other Samurai serving as yoriki , or assistant magistrates, who conducted criminal investigations, and beneath them were Samurai serving as dōshin , who were responsible for patrolling

10218-584: The game". The force was part funded by the London Society of West India Planters and Merchants . The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives". Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Depredations on the Thames Act 1800 on 28 July 1800, establishing a fully funded police force

10349-444: The government cannot effectively administer the expanse. Their troops are weary and although their formations are well-ordered, they do not have the resources to maintain their positions for long. To defeat them, we must strike swiftly, unexpectedly and retreat quickly before they can counter-attack. This will create unease in their weary soldiers and reduce their fighting spirit. Thus, with persistence, their army can be defeated. During

10480-689: The harbor cities of Ostia and Portus . Augustus also formed the Urban Cohorts to deal with gangs and civil disturbances in the city of Rome, and as a counterbalance to the Praetorian Guard's enormous power in the city. They were led by the urban prefect . Urban Cohort units were later formed in Roman Carthage and Lugdunum . Law enforcement systems existed in the various kingdoms and empires of ancient India . The Apastamba Dharmasutra prescribes that kings should appoint officers and subordinates in

10611-460: The height of its power and its ruler was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BC, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing other states in its original area (modern Hubei ), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain . In

10742-500: The high priest of Chu, multiple entries in Zuo Zhuan indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Lingyin, Huanlie Zhi Yin (Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin (Minister of Music). In counties and commanderies, Gong ( 公 ), also known as Xianyin (minister of county) was the chief administrator. In many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of

10873-486: The king's person, supervising public works, and executing the orders of the courts existed in the urban areas. They are repeatedly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible , and this system lasted into the period of Roman rule. The first century Jewish historian Josephus related that every judge had two such officers under his command. Levites were preferred for this role. Cities and towns also had night watchmen. Besides officers of

11004-501: The king's suspicion. Wang Jian's army passed through southern Chen ( 陳 ; present-day Huaiyang in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch

11135-517: The lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay. Chu used the calligraphic script called "Birds and Worms" style , which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has a design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords but not as intricate. Chu created

11266-489: The late Warring States period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the Legalistic reforms of Shang Yang . In 241 BC, five of the seven major warring states–Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han–formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian Yang Kuan ,

11397-610: The leaders, Jing Ju of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under Xiang Liang . Xiang installed Xiong Xin , a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BC, after the fall of the Qin Empire, Xiang Yu , Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and promoted King Huai II to "Emperor Yi". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with Liu Bang , another prominent anti-Qin rebel, in

11528-476: The maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public. Due to public fears concerning the deployment of the military in domestic matters, Peel organised the force along civilian lines, rather than paramilitary . To appear neutral,

11659-613: The medieval Islamic world. In France during the Middle Ages , there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Grand Constable of France . The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from

11790-590: The next 80 years. Bow Street was a manifestation of the move towards increasing professionalisation and state control of street life, beginning in London. The Macdaniel affair , a 1754 British political scandal in which a group of thief-takers was found to be falsely prosecuting innocent men in order to collect reward money from bounties , added further impetus for a publicly salaried police force that did not depend on rewards. Nonetheless, In 1828, there were privately financed police units in no fewer than 45 parishes within

11921-622: The nobility enforced law in the countryside according to the will of their leaders. The Songhai Empire had officials known as assara-munidios , or "enforcers", acting as police. Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas also had organized law enforcement. The city-states of the Maya civilization had constables known as tupils . In the Aztec Empire , judges had officers serving under them who were empowered to perform arrests, even of dignitaries. In

12052-482: The north in 447 BC. By the end of the 5th century BC, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality. In the late 390s BC, King Dao of Chu made Wu Qi his chancellor . Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BC, as he lowered

12183-425: The number of private thief-takers. Thief-takers became infamously known not so much for what they were supposed to do, catching real criminals and prosecuting them, as for "setting themselves up as intermediaries between victims and their attackers, extracting payments for the return of stolen goods and using the threat of prosecution to keep offenders in thrall". Some of them, such as Jonathan Wild , became infamous at

12314-444: The office of justice of the peace was established, with a justice of the peace overseeing constables. There was also a system of investigative " juries ". The Assize of Arms of 1252 , which required the appointment of constables to summon men to arms, quell breaches of the peace , and to deliver offenders to the sheriff or reeve, is cited as one of the earliest antecedents of the English police. The Statute of Winchester of 1285

12445-468: The parish constables and night watchmen, who were the only public figures provided by the state and who were typically part-time and local, would make the arrest. As a result, the state set a reward to encourage citizens to arrest and prosecute offenders. The first of such rewards was established in 1692 of the amount of £40 for the conviction of a highwayman and in the following years it was extended to burglars, coiners and other forms of offense. The reward

12576-515: The pilgrims against robber knights. Throughout the Middle Ages such alliances were frequently formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads connecting them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes. Among the most powerful was the league of North Castilian and Basque ports, the Hermandad de las marismas: Toledo , Talavera , and Villarreal . As one of their first acts after end of

12707-452: The predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property . Police forces have become ubiquitous and a necessity in complex modern societies. However, their role can sometimes be controversial, as they may be involved to varying degrees in corruption , brutality , and

12838-418: The salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BC, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue . Yue

12969-472: The same responsibilities as chief tithingmen and additionally as royal officers. The constable was elected by his parish every year. Eventually, constables became the first 'police' official to be tax-supported. In urban areas, watchmen were tasked with keeping order and enforcing nighttime curfew. Watchmen guarded the town gates at night, patrolled the streets, arrested those on the streets at night without good reason, and also acted as firefighters. Eventually

13100-420: The so-called Peelian principles , which set down basic guidelines for ethical policing: The Metropolitan Police Act 1829 created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different from

13231-562: The stolen property. They were private individuals usually hired by crime victims. The earliest English use of the word police seems to have been the term Polles mentioned in the book The Second Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England published in 1642. The first example of a statutory police force in the world was probably the High Constables of Edinburgh , formed in 1611 to police

13362-505: The streets of Edinburgh , then part of the Kingdom of Scotland . The constables, of whom half were merchants and half were craftsmen, were charged with enforcing 16 regulations relating to curfews, weapons, and theft. At that time, maintenance of public order in Scotland was mainly done by clan chiefs and feudal lords. The first centrally organised and uniformed police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police

13493-619: The streets, keeping the peace, and making arrests when necessary. The yoriki were responsible for managing the dōshin . Yoriki and dōshin were typically drawn from low-ranking samurai families. Assisting the dōshin were the komono , non-Samurai chōnin who went on patrol with them and provided assistance, the okappiki , non-Samurai from the lowest outcast class, often former criminals, who worked for them as informers and spies, and gōyokiki or meakashi , chōnin, often former criminals, who were hired by local residents and merchants to work as police assistants in

13624-501: The summer of 648 BC, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of Jin . These alliances kept Chu in check, and the Chu kingdom lost their first major battle at the Chengpu in 632 BC. During the 6th century BC, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of central plain . In 597 BC , Jin

13755-475: The surrounding areas, the Medjay were used throughout Upper and Lower Egypt . Each regional unit had its own captain. The police forces of ancient Egypt did not guard rural communities, which often took care of their own judicial problems by appealing to village elders, but many of them had a constable to enforce state laws. In ancient Greece , publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police. In Athens ,

13886-580: The thorny chaste tree (genus Vitex ), Schuessler (2007) proposes two Austroasiatic comparanda: The Mo'ao ( 莫敖 ) and the Lingyin ( 令尹 ) were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong ( 三公 ) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin ( 左尹 ) and Youyin ( 右尹 ) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima ( 司馬 )

14017-488: The time for staging robberies in order to receive the reward. In 1737, George II began paying some London and Middlesex watchmen with tax monies, beginning the shift to government control. In 1749, Judge Henry Fielding began organizing a force of quasi-professional constables known as the Bow Street Runners . The Bow Street Runners are considered to have been Britain's first dedicated police force. They represented

14148-476: The town treasury. The Talmud also mentions city watchmen and mounted and armed watchmen in the suburbs. In many regions of pre-colonial Africa , particularly West and Central Africa, guild-like secret societies emerged as law enforcement. In the absence of a court system or written legal code, they carried out police-like activities, employing varying degrees of coercion to enforce conformity and deter antisocial behavior. In ancient Ethiopia , armed retainers of

14279-599: The town, there were officers for every tribe. The temple in Jerusalem had special temple police to guard it. The Talmud mentions various local police officials in the Jewish communities of the Land of Israel and Babylon who supervised economic activity. Their Greek-sounding titles suggest that the roles were introduced under Hellenic influence. Most of these officials received their authority from local courts and their salaries were drawn from

14410-480: The towns and villages to protect their subjects from crime. Various inscriptions and literature from ancient India suggest that a variety of roles existed for law enforcement officials such as those of a constable, thief catcher, watchman, and detective. In ancient India up to medieval and early modern times, kotwals were in charge of local law enforcement. The Achaemenid Empire had well-organized police forces. A police force existed in every place of importance. In

14541-502: The twelfth century against banditry and other rural criminals, and against the lawless nobility or to support one or another claimant to a crown. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a long-standing fixture of Spain. The first recorded case of the formation of an hermandad occurred when the towns and the peasantry of the north united to police the pilgrim road to Santiago de Compostela in Galicia , and protect

14672-443: The uniform was deliberately manufactured in blue, rather than red which was then a military colour, along with the officers being armed only with a wooden truncheon and a rattle to signal the need for assistance. Along with this, police ranks did not include military titles, with the exception of Sergeant . To distance the new police force from the initial public view of it as a new tool of government repression, Peel publicised

14803-519: The way. Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BC. By the late 4th century BC, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually completely wiped out by Qin. The Chu state was completely eradicated by the Qin dynasty. According to the Records of the Warring States , a debate between the Diplomat strategist Zhang Yi and

14934-485: The worship of gibbons and other animals perceived to have auspicious amounts of qi . Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for shamans . The Chu culture and government supported Taoism and native shamanism supplemented with some Confucian glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire Zhurong in Chinese mythology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people. The naturalistic and flowing art,

15065-646: The year of 579 BC when a truce was signed between the two states. At the beginning of the sixth century BC, Jin strengthened the state of Wu near the Yangtze delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated Qi and then invaded Chu in 506 BC. Following the Battle of Boju , it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing King Zhao to flee to his allies in Yun and " Sui ". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BC, he temporarily moved

15196-634: Was also known as the Maréchaussée , or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. In late medieval Italian cities, police forces were known as berovierri . Individually, their members were known as birri . Subordinate to the city's podestà , the berovierri were responsible for guarding the cities and their suburbs, patrolling, and the pursuit and arrest of criminals. They were typically hired on short-term contracts, usually six months. Detailed records from medieval Bologna show that birri had

15327-458: Was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of Danfeng County , Shaanxi . Any forces that marched from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi. In traditional Chinese astronomy , Chu is represented by a star in the "Twelve States" asterism , part of the " Girl " lunar mansion in the " Black Turtle " symbol . Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star

15458-430: Was assisted by Zuosima ( 左司馬 ) and Yousima ( 右司馬 ) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court. Ministers whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin ( 尹 ). For example: Lingyin (Prime minister), Gongyin (Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word "Yin". Shenyin ( 沈尹 ) was the minister of religious duties or

15589-445: Was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi , causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu , Wey , and Song . The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until

15720-404: Was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie , who had 44 commissaires de police ('police commissioners') under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police ('police inspectors'). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires , each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of

15851-463: Was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty, along with that of the Qin dynasty's and other preceding states' from the Warring States period. Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of bronze vessels in the Zhou style. The bronze wares of the state of Chu also have their own characteristics. For example, the bronze Jin (altar table) unearthed from

15982-664: Was further reformed during the New Kingdom period. Police officers served as interrogators, prosecutors, and court bailiffs, and were responsible for administering punishments handed down by judges. In addition, there were special units of police officers trained as priests who were responsible for guarding temples and tombs and preventing inappropriate behavior at festivals or improper observation of religious rites during services. Other police units were tasked with guarding caravans, guarding border crossings, protecting royal necropolises , guarding slaves at work or during transport, patrolling

16113-443: Was organized, uniformed and armed like a military unit and was responsible for interventions against various crimes and the arrest of suspected criminals. These guards were assisted by the military, fire patrolmen, and a civilian unit that did not wear a uniform, but instead wore a small badge around the neck. The civilian unit monitored compliance with city ordinances relating to e.g. sanitation issues, traffic and taxes. In rural areas,

16244-474: Was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334 or 333 BC. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BC. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, The Book of Master Wu . Of Chu, he said: The Chu people are soft and weak. Their lands stretch far and wide, and

16375-627: Was replaced by the Sydney Foot Police in 1790. In New South Wales , rural law enforcement officials were appointed by local justices of the peace during the early to mid-19th century and were referred to as "bench police" or "benchers". A mounted police force was formed in 1825. Chu (state) Also known as Jing ( 荊 ) and Jingchu ( 荊楚 ), Chu included most of the present-day provinces of Hubei and Hunan , along with parts of Chongqing , Guizhou , Henan , Anhui , Jiangxi , Jiangsu , Zhejiang , and Shanghai . For more than 400 years,

16506-424: Was required to participate in a tithing. Members of tithings were responsible for raising "hue and cry" upon witnessing or learning of a crime, and the men of his tithing were responsible for capturing the criminal. The person the tithing captured would then be brought before the chief tithingman, who would determine guilt or innocence and punishment. All members of the criminal's tithing would be responsible for paying

16637-753: Was responsible for investigating petty crimes and carrying out arrests. In ancient Egypt evidence of law enforcement exists as far back as the Old Kingdom period . There are records of an office known as "Judge Commandant of the Police" dating to the fourth dynasty . During the fifth dynasty at the end of the Old Kingdom period, warriors armed with wooden sticks were tasked with guarding public places such as markets, temples, and parks, and apprehending criminals. They are known to have made use of trained monkeys, baboons, and dogs in guard duties and catching criminals. After

16768-594: Was the teacher of King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BC). After the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty , King Cheng (r. 1042–1021 BC) enfeoffed Yuxiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi with the fiefdom of Chu in the Nanyang Basin and the hereditary title of 子 ( zǐ , " viscount "). Then the first capital of Chu was established at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan). In 977 BC, during his campaign against Chu , King Zhao of Zhou 's boat sank and he drowned in

16899-401: Was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as snakes , dragons , phoenixes , tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the previous Shang dynasty , since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods. Another common Chu idea was

17030-427: Was to act as bodyguards to magistrates who held imperium , could carry out arrests and inflict punishments at their magistrate's command. Magistrates such as tresviri capitales , procurators fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and manage the prosecution themselves. Under the reign of Augustus , when

17161-463: Was to be increased in 1720 when, after the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and the consequent rise of criminal offenses, the government offered £100 for the conviction of a highwayman. Although the offer of such a reward was conceived as an incentive for the victims of an offense to proceed to the prosecution and to bring criminals to justice, the efforts of the government also increased

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