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55-465: The Annales iuvavenses or Annals of Salzburg were a series of annals written in the 9th and 10th centuries at Salzburg (the former Roman Iuvavum ) in the East Frankish stem duchy of Bavaria . They are a useful source for southeastern Germany and Austria where they exist, but they only survive in fragments copied at the scriptorium of Admont Abbey in the 12th century. According to

110-529: A 19-year cycle, known as the Metonic cycle (See Leap months , below). The beginning of each Jewish lunar month is based on the appearance of the new moon . Although originally the new lunar crescent had to be observed and certified by witnesses (as is still done in Karaite Judaism and Islam ), nowadays Jewish months have generally fixed lengths which approximate the period between new moons. For these reasons,

165-482: A given month does not always begin on the same day as its astronomical conjunction. The mean period of the lunar month (precisely, the synodic month ) is very close to 29.5 days. Accordingly, the basic Hebrew calendar year is one of twelve lunar months alternating between 29 and 30 days: Thus, the year normally contains twelve months with a total of 354 days. In such a year, the month of Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days. However, due to

220-472: A period known as an iggul , or the Iggul of Rabbi Nahshon . This period is notable in that the precise details of the calendar almost always (but not always) repeat over this period. This occurs because the molad interval (the average length of a Hebrew month) is 29.530594 days, which over 247 years results in a total of 90215.965 days. This is almost exactly 90216 days – a whole number and multiple of 7 (equalling

275-577: A remainder of 0 signifies Saturday. In Hebrew, these names may be abbreviated using the numerical value of the Hebrew letters, for example יום א׳ ( Day 1 , or Yom Rishon ( יום ראשון )): The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the Genesis creation account . For example, Genesis 1:8 "... And there was evening and there was morning, a second day" corresponds to Yom Sheni meaning "second day". (However, for days 1, 6, and 7

330-620: Is 9:38 AM"). The Hebrew week ( שבוע , shavua ) is a cycle of seven days, mirroring the seven-day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world is created. The names for the days of the week are simply the day number within the week. The week begins with Day 1 ( Sunday ) and ends with Shabbat ( Saturday ). (More precisely, since days begin in the evening, weeks begin and end on Saturday evening. Day 1 lasts from Saturday evening to Sunday evening, while Shabbat lasts from Friday evening to Saturday evening.) Since some calculations use division,

385-474: Is a leap year, find the remainder on dividing [(7 ×  n ) + 1] by 19. If the remainder is 6 or less it is a leap year; if it is 7 or more it is not. For example, the remainder on dividing [(7 × 5785) + 1] by 19 is 7, so the year 5785 is not a leap year. The remainder on dividing [(7 × 5786) + 1] by 19 is 14, so the year 5786 is not a leap year. This works because as there are seven leap years in nineteen years

440-540: Is a seven-year release cycle. The placement of these cycles is debated. Historically, there is enough evidence to fix the sabbatical years in the Second Temple Period . But it may not match with the sabbatical cycle derived from the biblical period; and there is no consensus on whether or not the Jubilee year is the fiftieth year or the latter half of the forty ninth year. Every 247 years, or 13 cycles of 19 years, form

495-457: Is also applied to various periodicals , particularly peer-reviewed journals in the sciences , after the model of Lavoisier 's Annales de chimie et de physique . Attribution: Jewish calendar Hebrew Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Arabic Other Jewish diaspora languages Jewish folklore Jewish poetry The Hebrew calendar ( Hebrew : הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי , romanized :  halLūaḥ hāʿĪḇrī ), also called

550-491: Is borne out in the common division of Tacitus's works into Annals and Histories , although he did not use those titles to refer to his own works. Among the early Christians, it was common to establish the date of Easter by asking local Jews for the date of Passover ( Nisan 14 in the Jewish calendar ) and either using that date or the nearest Sunday to it. By the end of the 3rd century, this date sometimes occurred before

605-468: Is equal to 3 + 1 ⁄ 3 seconds). The very first molad, the molad tohu , fell on Sunday evening at 11:11:20 pm in the local time of Jerusalem , 6 October 3761 BCE ( Proleptic Julian calendar ) 20:50:23.1 UTC , or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts. The exact time of a molad in terms of days after midnight between 29 and 30 December 1899 (the form used by many spreadsheets for date and time)

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660-428: Is for calculating and announcing the molad . In another system, the daytime period is divided into 12 relative hours ( sha'ah z'manit , also sometimes called "halachic hours"). A relative hour is defined as 1 ⁄ 12 of the time from sunrise to sunset, or dawn to dusk, as per the two opinions in this regard. Therefore, an hour can be less than 60 minutes in winter, and more than 60 minutes in summer; similarly,

715-708: Is of uncertain status. Thus (for example) observance of Shabbat begins before sundown on Friday and ends after nightfall on Saturday, to be sure that Shabbat is not violated no matter when the transition between days occurs. Instead of the International Date Line convention, there are varying opinions as to where the day changes. One opinion uses the antimeridian of Jerusalem (located at 144°47' W, passing through eastern Alaska ). Other opinions exist as well. (See International date line in Judaism .) Judaism uses multiple systems for dividing hours. In one system ,

770-471: Is performed. To calculate the day on which Rosh Hashanah of a given year will fall, the expected molad (moment of lunar conjunction or new moon ) of Tishrei in that year is calculated. The molad is calculated by multiplying the number of months that will have elapsed since some (preceding) molad (whose weekday is known) by the mean length of a (synodic) lunar month, which is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 "parts" in an hour, so that one part

825-432: Is the "real" Adar, and which is the added leap month. The Bible does not directly mention the addition of leap months (also known as "embolismic" or " intercalary " months). The insertion of the leap month is based on the requirement that Passover occur at the same time of year as the spring barley harvest ( aviv ). (Since 12 lunar months make up less than a solar year, the date of Passover would gradually move throughout

880-458: Is the new year for kings and festivals. The 1st of Elul is the new year for the cattle tithe  ... The 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the Shmita and Jubilee years, for planting and for vegetables. The 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees—so the school of Shammai, but the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof . Two of these dates are especially prominent: For the dates of

935-579: The Annales Iuvavenses , in 920 Baiuarii sponte se reddiderunt Arnolfo duci et regnare eum fecerunt in regno Teutonicorum : "the Bavarians, with some other East Franks, elected Arnulf German king in opposition to Henry " (actually in 919). This provides some of the only evidence for the concept of a " Kingdom of Germany " before the late 11th century, but it may be a 12th-century interpolation, as most scholars perceive it to be. The Salzburg annals are also

990-451: The Gregorian calendar . Like other lunisolar calendars, the Hebrew calendar consists of months of 29 or 30 days which begin and end at approximately the time of the new moon. As 12 such months comprise a total of just 354 days, an extra lunar month is added every 2 or 3 years so that the long-term average year length closely approximates the actual length of the solar year . Originally,

1045-448: The Gregorian years (365.2425 days/year) make (0.0003 days/year, or one day in 3333 years). Besides the adding of leap months, the year length is sometimes adjusted by adding one day to the month of Marcheshvan, or removing one day from the month of Kislev. Because each calendar year begins with Rosh Hashanah , adjusting the year length is equivalent to moving the day of the next Rosh Hashanah. Several rules are used to determine when this

1100-407: The Jewish calendar , is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance and as an official calendar of Israel . It determines the dates of Jewish holidays and other rituals, such as yahrzeits and the schedule of public Torah readings . In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture, and is an official calendar for civil holidays alongside

1155-454: The Rosh Hashanah postponement rules , in some years Kislev may lose a day to have 29 days, or Marcheshvan may acquire an additional day to have 30 days. Normally the 12th month is named Adar . During leap years , the 12th and 13th months are named Adar I and Adar II (Hebrew: Adar Aleph and Adar Bet —"first Adar" and "second adar"). Sources disagree as to which of these months

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1210-497: The Seder Olam Rabbah . Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after to a Julian calendar year number starting from 1 CE will yield the Hebrew year. For earlier years there may be a discrepancy; see Missing years (Jewish calendar) . In Hebrew there are two common ways of writing the year number: with the thousands, called לפרט גדול ("major era"), and without the thousands, called לפרט קטן ("minor era"). Thus,

1265-456: The founding of the Republic down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scaevola ( c.  132  BC), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record the name of the magistrates and the noteworthy events of each year on a white tablet (an album ), which was exhibited in an open place at his house so that the people might read it. Servius states the events were written for each day. In

1320-448: The molad interval (a mathematical approximation of the mean time between new moons) and several other rules , while leap months are now added in 7 out of every 19 years according to the Metonic cycle . Nowadays, Hebrew years are generally counted according to the system of Anno Mundi ( Latin : "in the year of the world"; Hebrew : לבריאת העולם , "from the creation of the world", abbreviated AM). This system attempts to calculate

1375-536: The remainder . (Since there is no year 0, a remainder of 0 indicates that the year is year 19 of the cycle.) For example, the Jewish year 5785 divided by 19 results in a remainder of 9, indicating that it is year 9 of the Metonic cycle. The Jewish year used is the anno mundi year, in which the year of creation according to the Rabbinical Chronology (3761 BCE) is taken as year 1. Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of

1430-530: The spring equinox and frequently varied from city to city. Following the 325 Council of Nicaea , Easter tables began to be drawn up according to various methods of computing Easter , often running from the Passion until decades or centuries into the future. Beginning in Ireland , Wales, and England in the 7th century, monks began to briefly note important events of the year as marginalia in these tables. Thereafter

1485-481: The 24-hour day is divided into fixed hours equal to 1 ⁄ 24 of a day, while each hour is divided into 1080 halakim (parts, singular: helek ). A part is 3 + 1 ⁄ 3 seconds ( 1 ⁄ 18 minute). The ultimate ancestor of the helek was a Babylonian time period called a barleycorn , equal to 1 ⁄ 72 of a Babylonian time degree (1° of celestial rotation). These measures are not generally used for everyday purposes; their best-known use

1540-452: The 6th hour ends at solar noon , which generally differs from 12:00. Relative hours are used for the calculation of prayer times ( zmanim ); for example, the Shema must be recited in the first three relative hours of the day. Neither system is commonly used in ordinary life; rather, the local civil clock is used. This is even the case for ritual times (e.g. "The latest time to recite Shema today

1595-558: The 9th-century Carolingian Renaissance , they became the usual form of contemporary history: major examples include the Royal Frankish Annals , the Annals of Fulda ( Annales Fuldenses ), the Annals of St Bertin ( Annales Bertiniani ), and the Annals of Lorsch ( Annales Laureschamenses ). As the annals developed into fuller and more descriptive entries, they became more indistinguishable from chronicles , although

1650-482: The Jewish New Year see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050 . The Jewish year number is generally given by Anno Mundi (from Latin "in the year of the world", often abbreviated AM or A.M. ). In this calendar era , the year number equals the number of years that have passed since the creation of the world , according to an interpretation of Biblical accounts of the creation and subsequent history. From

1705-509: The Julian years are 365 and 1/4 days long, every 28 years the weekday pattern repeats. This is called the sun cycle, or the Machzor Gadol ("great cycle") in Hebrew. The beginning of this cycle is arbitrary. Its main use is for determining the time of Birkat Hachama . Because every 50 years is a Jubilee year, there is a jubilee ( yovel ) cycle. Because every seven years is a sabbatical year, there

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1760-400: The Metonic cycle are leap years. The Hebrew mnemonic GUCHADZaT גוחאדז״ט refers to these years, while another memory aid refers to musical notation. Whether a year is a leap year can also be determined by a simple calculation (which also gives the fraction of a month by which the calendar is behind the seasons, useful for agricultural purposes). To determine whether year n of the calendar

1815-497: The Moon (Molad 1) is considered to be at 5 hours and 204 halakim, or 11:11:20 p.m., on the evening of Sunday, 6 October 3761 BCE. According to rabbinic reckoning, this moment was not Creation , but about one year "before" Creation, with the new moon of its first month (Tishrei) called molad tohu (the mean new moon of chaos or nothing). It is about one year before the traditional Jewish date of Creation on 25 Elul AM 1, based upon

1870-407: The beginning of each month was determined based on physical observation of a new moon, while the decision of whether to add the leap month was based on observation of natural agriculture-related events in ancient Israel . Between the years 70 and 1178, these empirical criteria were gradually replaced with a set of mathematical rules. Month length now follows a fixed schedule which is adjusted based on

1925-565: The compilation of annals became by and large a monastic activity, with the earliest recorded monastic annals being compiled in Ireland and known as the Chronicle of Ireland . Not all early annalistic texts, however, were monastic, and some in fact were made under royal patronage. For example, what is now called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , a text concerned mainly with the activities of kings,

1980-484: The current year is written as ה'תשפ"ה ‎(5785) using the "major era" and תשפ"ה ‎(785) using the "minor era". Since the Jewish calendar has been fixed, leap months have been added according to the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common (non-leap) years of 12 months, and 7 are leap years of 13 months. This 19-year cycle is known in Hebrew as the Machzor Katan ("small cycle"). Because

2035-402: The days of the week). So over 247 years, not only does the 19-year leap year cycle repeat itself, but the days of the week (and thus the days of Rosh Hashanah and the year length) typically repeat themselves. To determine whether a Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle. This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding

2090-408: The difference between the solar and lunar years increases by 7/19-month per year. When the difference goes above 18/19-month this signifies a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month. The Hebrew calendar assumes that a month is uniformly of the length of an average synodic month , taken as exactly 29 13753 ⁄ 25920 days (about 29.530594 days, which is less than half a second from

2145-500: The eleventh century, anno mundi dating became the dominant method of counting years throughout most of the world's Jewish communities, replacing earlier systems such as the Seleucid era . As with Anno Domini (A.D. or AD), the words or abbreviation for Anno Mundi (A.M. or AM) for the era should properly precede the date rather than follow it. The reference junction of the Sun and

2200-425: The etymology of history (from Greek ιστορειν , historein , equated with Latin inspicere , "to inquire in person") properly restricts it to primary sources such as Thucydides 's which have come from the author's own observations, while annals record the events of earlier times arranged according to years. Hayden White distinguishes annals from chronicles , which organize their events by topics such as

2255-484: The festivals specified in the Bible ( Purim , Passover , Shavuot , Rosh Hashanah , Yom Kippur , Sukkot , and Shemini Atzeret ). The lengths of months in this period are fixed, meaning that the day of week of Passover dictates the day of week of the other Biblical holidays. However, the lengths of the months of Marcheshvan and Kislev can each vary by a day (due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules which are used to adjust

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2310-643: The late Republic, these were known as the Annales Maximi . After the pontificate of Publius, annals were compiled by various unofficial writers, of whom Cicero names Cato , Pictor , and Piso . These annals have been generally regarded as the same with the Commentarii Pontificum cited by Livy , but there seems reason to believe that the two were distinct, with the Commentarii being fuller and more circumstantial. Verrius Flaccus's division of genres

2365-547: The modern name differs slightly from the version in Genesis.) The seventh day, Shabbat , as its Hebrew name indicates, is a day of rest in Judaism. In Talmudic Hebrew, the word Shabbat ( שַׁבָּת ) can also mean "week", so that in ritual liturgy a phrase like "Yom Reviʻi beShabbat" means "the fourth day in the week". Jewish holidays can only fall on the weekdays shown in the following table: The period from 1 Adar (or Adar II , in leap years) to 29 Marcheshvan contains all of

2420-468: The modern scientific estimate); it also assumes that a tropical year is exactly 12 7 ⁄ 19 times that, i.e., about 365.2468 days. Thus it overestimates the length of the tropical year (365.2422 days) by 0.0046 days (about 7 minutes) per year, or about one day in 216 years. This error is less than the Julian years (365.2500 days) make (0.0078 days/year, or one day in 128 years), but much more than what

2475-415: The next sunset. Similarly, Yom Kippur , Passover , and Shabbat are described in the Bible as lasting "from evening to evening". The days are therefore figured locally. Halachically , the exact time when days begin or end is uncertain: this time could be either sundown ( shekiah ) or else nightfall ( tzait ha'kochavim , "when the stars appear"). The time between sundown and nightfall ( bein hashmashot )

2530-449: The number of years since the creation of the world according to the Genesis creation narrative and subsequent Biblical stories. The current Hebrew year, AM 5785, began at sunset on 2 October 2024 and will end at sunset on 22 September 2025. Based on the classic rabbinic interpretation of Genesis 1:5 ("There was evening and there was morning, one day"), a day in the rabbinic Hebrew calendar runs from sunset (the start of "the evening") to

2585-546: The only source for an assassination attempt on incapacitated King Carloman by the Bavarians in 878, the first medieval mention of Vienna in 881, and the location of the Battle of Pressburg (Brezalauspurc) against the Hungarians in 907. Annals The nature of the distinction between annals and history is a subject based on divisions established by the ancient Romans. Verrius Flaccus , quoted by Aulus Gellius , stated that

2640-547: The reigns of kings, and from histories, which aim to present and conclude a narrative implying the moral importance of the events recorded. Generally speaking, annalists record events drily, leaving the entries unexplained and equally weighted. The chief sources of information in regard to the annals of ancient Rome are two passages in Cicero and in Servius which have been the subject of much discussion. Cicero states that, from

2695-403: The solar year exceed the lunar year? By approximately 11 days. Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so-called embolismic (intercalated) year. For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so-and-so many days, since it is said: "throughout the months of

2750-526: The solar year if leap months were not occasionally added.) According to the rabbinic calculation, this requirement means that Passover (or at least most of Passover) should fall after the March equinox . Similarly, the holidays of Shavuot and Sukkot are presumed by the Torah to fall in specific agricultural seasons. Maimonides , discussing the calendrical rules in his Mishneh Torah (1178), notes: By how much does

2805-532: The term was still used for various works, such as the Annals of Waverley . In modern literature, the term "annals" is similarly loosely applied to works which more or less strictly adhere to the order of years, both in western contexts (English Annual Registers , French Annuaires de la Revue , German Jahrbücher ) and to equivalent styles in other cultures (such as the Chinese Spring and Autumn Annals ). It

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2860-440: The week can be derived. The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar , meaning that months are based on lunar months , but years are based on solar years . The calendar year features twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days, with an additional lunar month ("leap month") added periodically to synchronize the twelve lunar cycles with the longer solar year. These extra months are added in seven years (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19) out of

2915-536: The year length). As a result, the holidays falling after Marcheshvan (starting with Chanukah) can fall on multiple days for a given row of the table. A common mnemonic is " לא אד"ו ראש, ולא בד"ו פסח ", meaning: "Rosh HaShana cannot be on Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, and Passover cannot be on Monday, Wedesday or Friday" with each days' numerical equivalent, in gematria , is used, such that א' = 1 = Sunday, and so forth. From this rule, every other date can be calculated by adding weeks and days until that date's possible day of

2970-532: The year", which implies that we should count the year by months and not by days. The Hebrew calendar year conventionally begins on Rosh Hashanah , the first day of Tishrei . However, the Jewish calendar also defines several additional new years, used for different purposes. The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil "calendar years", "tax or fiscal years ", " academic years ", and so on. The Mishnah (c. 200 CE) identifies four new-year dates: The 1st of Nisan

3025-511: Was written in annalistic form. Other examples of insular annals, written under various kinds of patronage, include the Annals of the Four Masters , the Annals of Ulster , the Annals of Innisfallen , and the Annals of Wales ( Annales Cambriæ ). Introduced by insular missionaries to the continent, these texts were recopied, augmented, and continued, especially in Austrasia . During

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