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52-621: In the 1920s Antonio Luhan, a member of the Taos Pueblo , showed John Collier the poor living conditions in American Indian communities. In response to what he saw, Collier founded the American Indian Defense Association. For the next decade Collier headed Indian reform efforts, and in 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Collier as the new commissioner of Indian Affairs. Almost immediately Collier tried to change

104-655: A National Natural Landmark in 1976 as one of the best known examples of igneous dikes . The mountains can be seen from as far as 133 mi (214 km) to the north from Colorado Springs , 65 mi (105 km) to the south from Raton, New Mexico , and 85 mi (137 km) to the east from La Junta, Colorado . The Culebra Range runs almost due north and south, with its northern limit at La Veta Pass in Colorado, and its southern limit at Costilla Creek , just south of Big Costilla Peak in New Mexico. Its highest point

156-665: A high ridge separating the San Luis Valley on the west from the watershed of the Arkansas River on the east. The Crestones are a group of four 14,000 feet (4,000 m)+ peaks ( fourteeners ) in the Sangre de Cristo Range above Crestone, Colorado . The Spanish Peaks are a pair of mountains, West Spanish Peak , 13,626 ft (4,153 m), and East Spanish Peak , 12,860 ft (3,920 m), located in southwestern Huerfano County , Colorado . The Spanish Peaks were designated

208-664: A historical rivalry exists between the people on the South side of the river (summer people) and the North side (winter people). Foot races, which have significant religious meaning in the tribe, are a common way for these two groups to express their rivalry, and there is a long held tradition in their tribe that was possibly created before the pyramids. In addition, the Taos Pueblo attribute great value to Blue Lake in regards to their "living culture and agricultural sustainability." According to Wood,

260-472: A mission, under orders from Spanish Governor, Don Juan de Oñate . The north-side Pueblo is said to be one of the most photographed and painted buildings in North America. It is the largest multistoried Pueblo structure still existing. It is made of adobe walls that are often several feet thick. Its primary purpose was for defense. Up to as late as 1900, access to the rooms on lower floors was by ladders on

312-664: A rich agricultural history and has been the scene of land disputes between the descendants of Hispanic settlers and Anglo ranchers since the 1860s. The Taos Mountains span the western lobe of the range from Costilla Creek in the north, to Tres Ritos in the south. They include the highest point in New Mexico, Wheeler Peak , at 13,161 feet (4,011 m), which is part of the Wheeler Peak Wilderness . Other notable peaks include Pueblo Peak, which at 12,305 feet (3,751 m) rises dramatically above Taos Pueblo , and Latir Peak , at 12,708 feet (3,873 m). Williams Lake

364-563: Is Culebra Peak at 14,047 ft (4,282 m), which is notable for being the only fourteener in Colorado on private land with an access fee. Climbers wishing to ascend Culebra must pay a fee (currently US$ 150 per person), and the number of climbers per year is limited. It is also the most southerly fourteener in the U.S. Rockies. Standing to the east of the main crest are the two prominent Spanish Peaks (West: 13,626 ft (4,153 m), East: 12,860 ft (3,920 m)). These peaks were important landmarks for 19th century travelers on

416-573: Is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Taos -speaking ( Tiwa ) Native American tribe of Puebloan people . It lies about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the modern city of Taos, New Mexico . The pueblos are one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States. Taos Pueblo has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Taos Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos . A tribal land of 95,000 acres (38,000 ha)

468-464: Is attached to the pueblo, and about 4,500 people live in this area. The pueblo was constructed in a setting backed by the Taos Mountains of the Sangre de Cristo Range . The settlement was built on either side of Rio Pueblo de Taos , also called Rio Pueblo and Red Willow Creek, a small stream that flows through the middle of the pueblo compound. Its headwaters come from Blue Lake, or Ba Whyea, in

520-541: Is located below Wheeler Peak in the Wheeler Peak Wilderness. Taos Ski Valley lies just to the west of Wheeler Peak. Much of the central portion of the Taos Mountains is on Taos Pueblo land. As viewed from Taos , they are locally called "Taos Mountain." The southern portion of the Taos Mountains, between Palo Flechado Pass and Tres Ritos ( U.S. Route 64 and NM Route 518), is lower and less dramatic than

572-517: Is more commonly used in ceremonial contexts and is less common in everyday speech. The name Taos in English was borrowed from Spanish Taos . Spanish Taos is probably a borrowing of Taos tə̂o- "village" which was heard as tao to which the plural -s was added although in the modern language Taos is no longer a plural noun. It has been proposed that the Spanish Taos comes from tao, "cross of

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624-525: The Cenozoic Laramide orogeny . They are bounded on the west by the Rio Grande rift and on the east by a series of reverse and thrust faults . Vertical displacement along the faults is at least 4,200 metres (13,800 ft), and gravity measurements suggest the uplift has been thrust eastward great distances. This faulting places Precambrian basement rock in contact with sedimentary strata along

676-460: The Pecos River . The peaks include Truchas Peak , 13,102 ft (3,993 m), as their highest point. Other notable peaks are Santa Fe Baldy (12,622 ft (3,847 m)) and Jicarita Peak (12,835 ft (3,912 m)). The Pecos Wilderness is crossed by many trails and is popular for backpacking and for fishing in its high alpine lakes. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains were uplifted during

728-630: The Rocky Mountains . They are located in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico in the United States . The mountains run from Poncha Pass in South-Central Colorado , trending southeast and south, ending at Glorieta Pass , southeast of Santa Fe, New Mexico . The mountains contain a number of fourteen thousand foot peaks in the Colorado portion, as well as several peaks in New Mexico which are over thirteen thousand feet. The name of

780-549: The Sangre de Cristo Wilderness in Colorado and the Pecos Wilderness in New Mexico, as well as some smaller wilderness areas, such as Latir Peak Wilderness . The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve lies on the southwest side of the mountains in Colorado and are managed by the National Park Service. The Sangre de Cristo Mountains are divided into various subranges, described here from north to south. Use of

832-585: The United States Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which reversed the Dawes Act policy, and as described in section 3 of that act it was to "restore to tribal ownership the remaining surplus lands of any Indian reservation heretofore opened, or authorized to be opened, to sale, or any other form of disposal by Presidential proclamation, or by any of the public land laws of

884-782: The Dawes Act, was quoted as saying that to be civilized, one must "wear civilized clothes...cultivate the ground, live in houses, ride in Studebaker wagons, send children to school, drink whiskey and own property." Antonio Luhan described how government policies and the Bureau of Indian Affairs commissioners who enforced them overwhelmed American Indian culture, We have got a real friend in John Collier. He really likes Indians. In past time, we had Commissioners against us who tried to stop our ceremony dances and our dances-religious. They nearly destroy us; call our ways bad or moral or something, and put in

936-583: The Mexican regime. On January 19, 1847, Hispanos and Taos Pueblo people launched a rebellion against the US territorial government. Tomás Romero led a group of Taos Puebloans to Charles Bent's house in the town of Taos. The governor was shot with arrows, scalped , and killed. Following the death of Bent and several other Americans, Col. Sterling Price , commander of the US forces based in Santa Fe, led an expedition against

988-578: The Pueblos themselves only ascend the mountain for ceremonial purposes. At the time of the Spaniards' initial contact, Hernando de Alvarado described the pueblo as having adobe houses built very close together and stacked five or six stories high. The homes became narrower as they rose, with the roofs of each level providing the floors and terraces for those above. The buildings at Taos originally had few windows and no standard doorways. Instead, access to rooms

1040-535: The Rio Grande, where the water supply was more dependable. However, their reason for migrating is still disputed and there is evidence that a violent struggle took place. Ultimately, archeological clues point to the idea that the Natives may have been forced to leave. Throughout its early years, Taos Pueblo was a central point of trade between the native populations along the Rio Grande and their Plains Tribes neighbors to

1092-457: The Taos Pueblo community are baptized as Roman Catholics. Saint Jerome , or San Geronimo, is the patron saint of the pueblo. Since Spanish colonization , the native Taos people have resisted cultural change and influence with European ideas. Many ethnographers observe a high level of "interconnectedness and mutual dependence" between the Taos Pueblo and their surrounding land, where they derive many of their cultural traditions. Consequently,

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1144-420: The Taos Pueblo people never turn strangers away from their doors because they value both courtesy and hospitality. However, on All Souls' Day , the Taos Pueblo spend a day with their families and close their village to any non-Indian. The Taos Pueblo approach death with an air of "stoicism," and they are only allowed to visit cemeteries on All Souls' Day or the day of someone's burial. In the cultural fabric of

1196-725: The Taos Pueblo, the ethnographic data suggests that women are considered to be subordinate to men. The Pueblo social structure is dictated by kiva memberships, and women are not allowed to take part in the rituals held in these sacred spaces because they "are not trained" to do so. Despite the exclusion of women from some spiritual activities, the women in the Taos Pueblo society "exercised a considerable degree of influence economically, politically, and interpersonally." For example, single women can run their own households, and married women control their own finances because they traditionally work as cooks or maids. Additionally, women have informal decision making power, using their abilities to influence

1248-559: The United States when the Republican Richard Nixon signed Democratic senator Fred Harris ' Public Law 91-550. An additional 764 acres (309 ha) south of the ridge between Simpson Peak and Old Mike Peak and west of Blue Lake were transferred back to the Pueblo in 1996. Blue Lake, which the people of the Pueblo consider sacred, was included in this return of Taos land. The Pueblo notably involved non-native people in lobbying

1300-475: The United States". The Act provided funds to start tribal business ventures and to pay for the college education of young American Indians. The allotment process was halted and further losses of Indian land were halted. Tribes were encouraged to create strong tribal governments. Tribes were given the right to form constitutions, have self-government , and to form tribal corporations. A program to provide federal loan money for college and/or vocational school expenses

1352-481: The World Monument Fund. It is listed on its watchlist because of its endangered nature, both culturally and structurally. By the end of the conservation efforts, twenty-one adobe houses are expected to be restored. The previous fund has also covered the cost of a laser scanning of the structures. The main characteristics of the conservation of Taos Pueblo aim to encourage a community-based approach. They include

1404-775: The church. The Spanish replied brutally. Several years after it was rebuilt, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 began. During the Mexican-American War , New Mexico came under United States control after the Battle of Santa Fe in August 1846. Charles Bent was appointed as the American territorial governor. Many of the Taos Pueblo people and Hispanos feared that the new American regime would dispossess them of their land, especially since Bent had been involved in land-grant speculation schemes under

1456-588: The east side of the Cimarron Range. This is a minor subrange, significantly lower than the rest of the Sangre de Cristos; it lies east of the southernmost portion of the Taos Mountains. Rounding out the Sangre de Cristo Mountains are the Santa Fe Mountains, which include all peaks south of NM Route 518. This group lies near Santa Fe and surrounds the Pecos Wilderness , which protects the source watershed of

1508-475: The federal government for the return of Blue Lake, as they argued that their unrestricted access to the lake and the surrounding region was necessary to ensure their religious freedom. The Pueblo's web site names the reacquisition of the sacred Blue Lake as the most important event in its history due to the spiritual belief that the Taos people originated from the lake. It is believed that their ancestors live there, and

1560-467: The government's direction by revitalizing American Indian life and culture. AIDA was also set up in response to the 1921 and 1923 Leavitt Bill , also known as the Dance Order. This bill threatened to remove the right of Pueblo Indians to perform some of their traditional dances in New Mexico. The Bursum Bill of 1922 also posed a threat as it would authorize the acquisition of Pueblo lands. However, AIDA

1612-480: The historical pueblo full-time. In the Tanoan language of Taos ( Northern Tiwa ), the pueblo is referred to as "the village" in either tə̂otho "in the village" ( tə̂o- "village" + -tho "in") or tə̂obo "to/toward the village" ( tə̂o- "village" + -bo "to, toward"). The proper name of the pueblo is ȉałopháymųp’ȍhə́othə̀olbo "at red willow canyon mouth" (or ȉałopháybo "at the red willows" for short). This name

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1664-412: The insurgents, defeating them at the Battle of Cañada on January 24. The rebels retreated inside Taos Pueblo, and Price bombarded the town and the church where the defenders were sheltering with artillery on February 3. The next day, a hole was broken in the wall of the church to fire shells and grapeshot at those seeking refuge within. More than 150 people were killed during the attack. Tomás Romero

1716-612: The last words of a priest who was killed by Native Americans. Much of the mountains are within various National Forests: the Rio Grande and San Isabel in Colorado, and the Carson and Santa Fe in New Mexico. These publicly accessible areas are managed by the United States Forest Service and are popular for hunting , camping , hiking , mountain biking , backpacking , climbing , and cross-country and downhill skiing . The mountains include two large wilderness areas ,

1768-411: The majority of an 11-unit house which was in a state of near collapse. The first phase of the conservation of Taos Pueblo is the construction of the training center, restoration of 120 to 150 houses, training of the local people in the community, creation of a detailed assessment of the structure of the compound, and establishment of a cultural center and tribal archives. The second phase was financed by

1820-547: The men around them. In 2011, the Taos Pueblo Preservation Program received a $ 800,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The fund aims to hire more workers, especially those who are trained in traditional construction techniques for conservation work, as well as workshop assistants who help pueblo homeowners with maintenance of traditional adobe homes. Supervisors teach trainees about traditional construction methods while rebuilding

1872-530: The mission of San Geronimo de Taos . Reports from the period indicate that the native people of Taos resisted the building of the church and forceful imposition of the Catholic religion. Throughout the 1600s, cultural tensions grew between the native populations of the Southwest and the increasing Spanish colonial presence. Taos Pueblo was no exception. By 1660, the native people killed the resident priest and destroyed

1924-542: The mountain branch of the Santa Fe Trail . The western slope of the Culebras and the San Luis Valley are located within the Sangre de Cristo Land Grant , dating back to the 1840s but still a factor in the pattern of land ownership within the grant. The San Luis Valley is arid. The town of San Luis, Colorado has an annual precipitation of only 9.6 inches (240 mm).The surrounding area, traversed by Culebra Creek , has

1976-457: The mountains may refer to the occasional reddish hues observed during sunrise and sunset, and when alpenglow occurs, especially when the mountains are covered with snow. Although the particular origin of the name is unclear, it has been in use since the early 19th century. Before that time the terms "La Sierra Nevada", "La Sierra Madre", "La Sierra", and "The Snowies" (used by English speakers) were used. According to legend, "sangre de Cristo" were

2028-479: The nearby mountains. Taos Pueblo's most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown adobe , built on either side of the Rio Pueblo. The Pueblo's website states it was probably built between 1000 and 1450. The pueblo was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 9, 1960. In 1992 it was designated as a UNESCO Heritage Site . As of 2010, about 150 people live in

2080-468: The northeast. Taos Pueblo hosted a trade fair each fall after the agricultural harvest. Spanish conquistadors first arrived at Taos Pueblo in 1540; they were members of the Francisco Vásquez de Coronado expedition, which stopped at many of New Mexico's pueblos in search of the rumored Seven Cities of Gold . Around 1620, Spanish Jesuits oversaw construction of the first Catholic Church in the pueblo,

2132-463: The northern section, with its high point being Cerro Vista, 11,939 ft (3,639 m). The Fernando Mountains are a small subrange lying in this section, just south of US Route 64. The Cimarron Range lies across the Moreno Valley to the east of the Taos Mountains. It is a lower range, with its highest point being Baldy Mountain at 12,441 ft (3,792 m). The Philmont Scout Ranch lies on

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2184-612: The order of San Juan de los Caballeros" (from Greek tau ), but that is unlikely to be the case. It is most likely that the Taos Indigenous people, along with other Pueblo Indigenous people, settled along the Rio Grande after migrating south from the Four Corners region. The dwellings of that region were inhabited by the Ancestral Puebloans . A long drought in the area in the late 13th century may have caused them to move to

2236-410: The outside to the roof, and then down an inside ladder. In case of an attack, outside ladders could easily be pulled up. The homes in this structure usually consist of two rooms, one of which is for general living and sleeping, and the second of which is for cooking, eating, and storage. Each home is self-contained; there are no passageways between the houses. Taos Indians made little use of furniture in

2288-470: The paper they are going to stop us. But John Collier fight for us with the Indian Defense Association and he save us. Now, he look far ahead and it is like he is putting a wall all around us to protect us - and this Wheeler-Howard Bill is this wall. And no white man or grafter can come inside and take away our land or our religion which are connected together. To put these reform ideas into law,

2340-449: The past, but today they have tables , chairs, and beds. In the pueblo, electricity, running water , and indoor plumbing are prohibited. Two spiritual practices are represented in the Pueblo: the original indigenous spiritual and religious tradition and Roman Catholicism . The majority of Indigenous Taos continue to practice their still-vital and ancient religion. Most (90%) members of

2392-466: The risk of transmitting COVID-19. The grant will also be used to provide rental, food, and utility assistance. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service . Sangre de Cristo Mountains#Taos Mountains The Sangre de Cristo Mountains ( Spanish for " Blood of Christ ") are the southernmost subrange of

2444-549: The terms "Sangre de Cristo Range" and "Sangre de Cristo Mountains" is inconsistent and may refer to the northernmost subrange, the southernmost subrange, or the mountains as a whole. The Sangre de Cristo Range, the largest and most northerly subrange of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, runs directly along the east side of the Rio Grande rift , extending southeast from Poncha Pass for about 75 miles (120 km) through south-central Colorado to La Veta Pass , approximately 20 miles (32 km) west of Walsenburg . They form

2496-605: The training of local people to manage their own property, as well as the establishment of partnerships with government and non-government entities. The project resolves to preserve the traditional way of life in the community and sustain cultural traditions. In August 2020, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development announced a grant of $ 899,754 awarded to the Taos Pueblo Housing Authority to rehabilitate five housing units to help reduce

2548-494: Was summarily executed after US forces captured Taos Pueblo, and other leaders of the revolt were later put on trial and executed by hanging. Further battles against US forces took place until July of that year. The Pueblo's 48,000 acres (19,000 ha) of mountain land was taken by President Theodore Roosevelt and designated as the Carson National Forest early in the 20th century. It was finally returned in 1970 by

2600-551: Was able to block both bills successfully. American Indians culture had been stripped away by measures like the Dawes Act , which had ended tribal government and authorized the sale of tribal land to individuals. Between the years 1887 (the year the Dawes Act came into effect) and 1934 (known as the "Allotment era") the government took over 90 million acres (360,000 km) of tribal lands that were previously guaranteed to tribes by treaties and federal law. Henry Dawes , who authored

2652-399: Was begun. Critics of the American Indian Defense Association complained that Collier had not obtained enough input from the tribes themselves in formulating policies, and that the programs decreased the power of women in some tribes. Still, two-thirds of the nation's American Indians tribes voted to participate in the new programs. Taos Pueblo Taos Pueblo (or Pueblo de Taos )

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2704-553: Was through square holes in the roof that the people reached by climbing long, wooden ladders. Engelmann Spruce logs (or vigas ) supported roofs that had layers of branches, grass, mud, and plaster covering them. The architecture and the building materials were well suited for the rigors of the environment and the needs of the people in the Taos Valley . The first Spanish-influenced architecture appeared in Taos Pueblo after Fray Francisco de Zamora came there in 1598 to establish

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