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107-624: The Interim Government of Ambazonia was formed from the Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front (SCACUF), a nonviolent independence movement. Its members includes former leaders of the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC), an independence movement that was prominent in the 1990s. It was SCACUF, led by Chairperson Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe , that declared the independence of Ambazonia on October 1, 2017. The Interim Government

214-532: A political prisoner and prisoner of conscience by the United States Department of State , Amnesty International , Freedom House , and the U.N. Working Group on Arbitrary Detention since 2005, Michel was released under Biya's personal decree but the Working Group's tripartite demands remain unfulfilled. In 2016, Cameroonians in the nation's capital city of Yaoundé criticized Biya's reaction to

321-609: A provisional government in exile . In course of the insurgency, however, this government-in-exile splintered several times, resulting in infighting and several factions claiming to be the legitimate leadership of Ambazonia. This infighting hampered the coordination among the rebels as well as negotiations between separatists and the Cameroonian government. Despite the Interim Government's internal disputes, its members and other exile activists have maintained some influence over

428-482: A 1983 coup plot, along with two others; they were sentenced to death, although Biya commuted their sentences to life in prison. Biya survived a military coup attempt on 6 April 1984, following his decision on the previous day to disband the Republican Guard and disperse its members across the military. Estimates of the death toll ranged from 71 (according to the government) to about 1,000. Northern Muslims were

535-475: A Nigerian court determined that the arrest and deportation had been unconstitutional, and ordered everyone returned to Nigeria and compensated. This had no practical implications, and on August 20, 2019, the ten leaders, including Ayuk Tabe, were sentenced to life imprisonment by the Yaoundé Military Tribunal. Following the arrest of most of the Interim Government, Samuel Ikome Sako was elected in

642-504: A cable TV distributor got arrested for four days for airing images of the SCBC. On social media platforms such as Facebook , hate speech, propaganda and disinformation have been shown by both sides. The Ambazonians have been accused of using fake news headlines and photo manipulation. Over the course of the insurgency, Ambazonian insurgents have also framed their struggle in religious terms to gain support. The separatist insurgents involved in

749-506: A day spent on 43 hotel rooms. In 2009, Biya was ranked 19th in Parade Magazine 's Top 20 list of "The World's Worst Dictators". In November 2010, Bertrand Teyou published a book titled La belle de la république bananière: Chantal Biya, de la rue au palais (English: " The beauty of the banana republic: Chantal Biya, from the streets to the palace "), tracing Chantal Biya's rise from humble origins to become Paul Biya's First Lady. He

856-684: A diaspora electoral college to acting president in February 2018. In an attempt to unite several local militias under a single banner, the Interim Government created the Ambazonia Self-Defence Council (ASC) in March 2018. While the ASC is collectively larger than the ADF, it does not have a centralized command structure and is more of a cooperation project than a single organization. President Sako sought to bury

963-611: A fear of domination by much larger Nigeria. Endeley was defeated in elections on 1 February 1959 by John Ngu Foncha . Southern Cameroons federated with Cameroon on 1 October 1961 as " West Cameroon ", with its own prime minister . However, the English-speaking peoples of the Southern Cameroons did not believe that they were fairly treated by the 80% majority French-speaking government of the country. Then-president Ahmadou Ahidjo feared that Southern Cameroons would secede from

1070-421: A federal republic . Over time, the power of the central government, dominated by Francophones , expanded at the expense of the region's autonomy. Many inhabitants identify as Anglophones and resent what they perceive as discrimination and efforts to eliminate Anglophone legal, administrative, educational, and cultural institutions by the Cameroonian government. In 2016 and 2017, a widespread protest movement

1177-723: A law's constitutionality at his request. The RDPC continues to dominate the National Assembly, which does little more than approve his policies. "Tyrants, the World's 20 Worst Living Dictators", by David Wallechinsky , ranked Biya together with three other leaders in sub-Saharan Africa: Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe , Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of Equatorial Guinea , and King Mswati of Swaziland (now Eswatini ). He describes Cameroon's electoral process in these terms: "Every few years, Biya stages an election to justify his continuing reign, but these elections have no credibility. In fact, Biya

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1284-635: A reference to the destruction caused by the civil war. The area around the mouth of the Wouri River is where the English language was permanently established for the first time in Southern Cameroons, when missionary Alfred Saker founded a settlement of freed slaves by Ambas Bay in 1858, which was later renamed Victoria (present-day Limbe ). In 1884, the area became the British Ambas Bay Protectorate, with Victoria as its capital. Britain ceded

1391-561: A resolution allowing the president to "keep master access to all government platforms and websites". 5 days later, Sako signed the 2nd amendment to the constitution, saying on X that: "In a Townhall t'day I'll be signing into law the revolutionary Orders in Council of S.Cameroons as amended, restoring in full the Government of Southern Cameroons as the sole institution recognized by the UN, representing all

1498-425: A result of torture by rebel militias, are described as "short-sleeved", while the act of cutting off someone's fingers is termed "garri". Paul Biya Paul Biya (born Paul Barthélemy Biya'a bi Mvondo ; 13 February 1933) is a Cameroonian politician who has served as the second president of Cameroon since 1982, having previously been the fifth prime minister of Cameroon from 1975 to 1982. As of 2024, he

1605-840: A stumbling block" in finalising the land boundary. However, Cameroon–U.S. economic relations were at their highest ever level in 1982, when Ahidjo was replaced by his prime minister, Biya. Between 1982 and 1984, the U.S. overtook France as Cameroon's foremost export market, primarily due to its consumption of Cameroonian oil. Biya pursued a diversification of Cameroonian foreign relations still more vigorously than Ahidjo had, describing his foreign policy in such terms as "diplomacy of development", "co-operation without frontiers", and "open door" diplomacy. From around 2013, bilateral relations increasingly emphasised joint counterterrorism actions against Boko Haram and Islamic State in West Africa , alongside other regional security initiatives, especially in

1712-708: A total school strike since 2017 due to concerns over the lack of Anglophone teachers and curriculum. Teachers and students have been kidnapped and killed and many schools and school materials burned while many children have had no schooling since the crisis began. Others have alleged that some militias have engaged in ransom attacks against civilians to fund their continued activities. Meanwhile, government forces have torched entire villages suspected of harboring separatists, disappeared and executed civilians without due process, and tortured detainees. Reports of indiscriminate killings, torture, rape and other gender-based violence by both sides have been widely reported. The governments of

1819-419: A united front, and internecine conflicts have hampered efforts to negotiate with Cameroon or establish control over the various militia groups engaged in the fighting. Ongoing violence has led to widely reported human rights abuses by both sides, including indiscriminate killing of civilians, torture , rape and other gender-based crimes, unjustified detentions , and kidnappings . The term "Ambazonia"

1926-516: Is credited with a creative innovation in the world of phony elections. In 2004, annoyed by the criticisms of international vote-monitoring groups, he paid for his own set of international observers, six ex-U.S. congressmen, who certified his election as free and fair." In a 2005 interview William Quantrill , a retired member of the British Diplomatic Service , argued that the reluctance of Biya to delegate responsibility seriously hampered

2033-450: Is derived from the word Ambozes , the local name for the bay at the mouth of the Wouri river, known in English as Ambas Bay . The name was coined by Fon Gorji Dinka in 1984 as part of a campaign for the restoration of autonomy and preservation of Anglophone institutions in the region. The term Ambazonia is more usually associated with the separatist or independence-seeking faction, while

2140-661: Is equipped and trained by Israel. Students in Cameroon were granted 11 month visas to travel to Israel and learn about agriculture, while poultry farmers underwent training for poultry production in Israel. Israelis also trained personnel at six hospitals in Cameroon on how to combat the Ebola virus . Biya, Ahidjo's successor as president, filed suit at the International Court of Justice on 29 March 1994. Cameroon's claim to Bakassi

2247-547: Is supported by France , one of the former colonial powers in Cameroon, which supplies it with weapons and trains its military forces. France is also the leading foreign investor in Cameroon. The People's Republic established relations with Cameroon on 26 March 1971. In the 2000s, leading politicians paid state visits to and from each country; these included President Biya's visit for a conference in 2006 and Hu Jintao 's visit to Cameroon in 2007. Chinese foreign minister Wang Yi visited Cameroon on 12 January 2014. Cameroon

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2354-641: Is the second-longest-ruling president in Africa (after Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo in Equatorial Guinea ) and the longest consecutively serving current non-royal national leader in the world and the oldest head of state in the world. A native of Cameroon's south, Biya rose rapidly as a bureaucrat under President Ahmadou Ahidjo in the 1960s, as Secretary-General of the Presidency from 1968 to 1975 and then as prime minister. He succeeded Ahidjo as president upon

2461-610: The Cameroonian English dialect . However, separatist forces have also developed a unique slang in the context of the insurgency. For instance, rebels call their camps "churches", conveying deeper spiritual meaning to these important places where insurgents can organize and hide. Researcher Roderick Lando also speculated that the term "church" was connected to the rebels conducting rituals invoking protective magic at their camps. Similarly, some rebels refer to their guns as "bibles" and their attacks as "crusades", whereas others use

2568-709: The Federal Republic of Ambazonia or State of Ambazonia , is a political entity proclaimed by Anglophone separatists who are seeking independence from Cameroon . The separatists claim that Ambazonia should consist of the Northwest Region and Southwest Region of Cameroon. Since 2017, Ambazonian rebels have engaged in armed conflict with the Cameroonian military, in what is known as the Anglophone Crisis , and have attempted to set up governments-in-exile , and supportive militias have exerted control over parts of

2675-504: The Gulf of Guinea . Between 2015 and 2020, about 300 U.S. military personnel were deployed in northern Cameroon to conduct regional intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance . Biya makes relatively few public appearances, and is sometimes characterized as aloof. Since the early 1990s, he has faced his strongest opposition from the Anglophone population of the former Southern Cameroons in

2782-529: The Southwest Region ) were neglected by Biya's government, and excluded from power. During this time, Anglophone separatists claim that government forces murdered protestors en masse, and committed crimes against humanity , including genocide . Certain protestors had called upon Biya and the Cameroonian government to grant them independence. Eventually, separatists declared independence in October 2017 under

2889-460: The country's worst train crash in which 79 people died. Critics included government officials who remained anonymous, fearing a backlash. The Anglophone protests in late 2016 were led by English-speaking lawyers in protest against the use of French in Cameroonian courts, which led to violent clashes with police. Opposition party leader Edna Njilin of the Cameroon People's Party spoke out against

2996-577: The "Buea Declaration", which called for constitutional amendments to restore the 1961 federation. This was followed by the second All Anglophone Conference (AAC2) in Bamenda in 1994. This conference issued the "Bamenda Declaration", which stated that if the federal state was not restored within a reasonable time, Southern Cameroons would declare its independence. The AAC was renamed the Southern Cameroons Peoples Conference (SCPC), and later

3103-637: The 15 deputies of the SDF chose to boycott the vote in protest. The change also provided for the President to enjoy immunity from prosecution for his actions as president after leaving office. On 12 June 2006, he signed the Greentree Agreement with Nigerian president Olusegun Obasanjo which formally put an end to the Bakassi peninsula border dispute. In February 2008, riots broke out, calling for lower prices and

3210-543: The ASC on some level. There are also dozens of smaller militias. The insurgent groups differ considerably in their aims and methods, though they generally enjoy some level of grassroots support among the rural population. However, civilian support suffered over the rebellion's course, as a growing number of locals became dissatisfied with the separatists' conduct, rebel infighting, and the conflict's extended duration. Most rebel groups engage to some level in criminal activities such as kidnapping for ransom and illegally taxing

3317-717: The Anglophone Crisis consider themselves loyal to Ambazonia and use the Ambazonian national symbols, but they are split into dozens of often competing militias of changing political allegiances. The militia commanders have been described as " warlords " by researchers. The armed separatists are locally called "Amba Boys". The militias generally vary in size, ranging from small groups to alliances with hundreds of members. The rebel militias are mainly recruited from Anglophone youths who have either lost family members to Cameroonian security forces or believe that they have no future on

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3424-626: The Anglophone regions. In the subsequent trials, Amnesty International and the SCNC found substantive evidence of admissions through torture and force. The raid and trial resulted in a shutdown of SCNC activities. In response to this, in April 1998 a small faction elected Esoka Ndoki Mukete, a high-ranking member of the Social Democratic Front, as the new chair of the SCNC. In October 1999, when many of

3531-521: The Ayuk Tabe-led faction of the IG. Despite the imprisonment and the infighting within the Interim Government, Ayuk Tabe was still considered more influential than Sako. In July 2020, Cameroonian officials met with Ayuk Tabe and other members of his cabinet to discuss a ceasefire. When asked about his conditions for a ceasefire, Ayuk Tabe listed three; that the ceasefire be announced by President Paul Biya , that

3638-763: The CNU Central Committee and Political Bureau and was elected as the vice-president of the CNU. On 11 December 1982, he was placed in charge of managing party affairs in Ahidjo's absence. During the first months after Biya's succession, he continued to show loyalty to Ahidjo, and Ahidjo continued to show support for Biya, but in 1983, a deep rift developed between the two. Ahidjo went into exile in France, and from there, he publicly accused Biya of abuse of power and paranoia about plots against him. After Ahidjo resigned as CNU leader, Biya took

3745-562: The CNU was transformed into the Cameroon People's Democratic Movement , in Bamenda and Biya was unlawfully elected as its president. He was also re-elected as President of Cameroon on 24 April 1988. Biya initially took some steps to open up the regime, culminating in the decision to legalize opposition parties in 1990. According to official results, Biya won the first multiparty presidential election , held on 11 October 1992, with about 40% of

3852-746: The Cabinet of the minister of national education in January 1964 and secretary-general of the ministry of national education in July 1965, he was named director of the civil cabinet of the president in December 1967 and secretary-general of the presidency (while remaining director of the civil cabinet) in January 1968. He gained the rank of minister in August 1968 and the rank of minister of state in June 1970, while remaining secretary-general of

3959-646: The Cameroon Bar Association Fongum Gorji Dinka wrote that the Cameroonian government led by Paul Biya was unconstitutional and announced the former Southern Cameroons should become independent as the Republic of Ambazonia. Dinka was incarcerated the following January without trial. Three years later, he escaped to Nigeria. In 1993, representatives of Anglophone groups convened the first All Anglophone Conference (AAC1) in Buea. The conference issued

4066-722: The Cameroonian authorities in 2001. In 2006, a faction of SCNC once again declared the independence of Ambazonia. In November 2016, a number of large protests and strikes were organized, initially by Anglophone lawyers, students, and teachers focused on the growing marginalization of English and Anglophone institutions in the law and education. Several demonstrations were violently dispersed by security forces, leading to clashes between demonstrators and police in which several people were killed. Violence by both sides undermined negotiations in early 2017, which fell apart without an agreement. The violence led to additional demonstrations, general strikes (called "lockdowns"), and further crackdowns by

4173-447: The Cameroonian government and other official sources, such as the UN, continue to refer to the " Northwest Region " and " Southwest Region " (or sometimes the "NoSo" regions), the official names of the two administrative provinces since 1972. As an alternative to "Ambazonia", separatists have also used "Ambaland". Other sources may also refer to "Southern Cameroons", "Anglophone Cameroon" or "Cameroon's Anglophone regions". To refer to

4280-586: The Cameroonian military would pull out of the Anglophone regions, and a general amnesty for separatists. The outbreak of the Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria widened the gap between Ambazonian factions. The AGovC declared an alliance with the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), a Biafran separatist movement. The Interim Government under Sako denounced this move, preferring instead to attempt to win

4387-462: The French and US governments. In his victory speech, Biya promised to stimulate growth and create jobs with a programme of public works which would "transform our country into a vast construction site". On 3 November 2011, he was sworn in for another term as president. Biya won the 2018 presidential election with 71.3% of the vote. The election was marred by violence and low voter turnout. His regime

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4494-526: The French-speaking parts of Cameroon, Ambazonian separatists have used the term "la République" and more derogatory descriptors like " banana republic " or "colonial Cameroun". "Banana republic" is used as a criticism of the Cameroonian institutions, whereas "colonial Cameroun" is used to criticize the Francophone dominance. The Ambazonian activists call the war zone of the Anglophone Crisis " Ground Zero ",

4601-571: The Government of Southern Cameroons, or the Government of the Federal Republic of Ambazonia, changing the coat of arms and seal of the government, the name of the Interim House of Representatives to the "Southern Cameroons House of Assembly" and restoring the House of Chiefs. They also passed a resolution allowing the government to trademark all property of the government of Ambazonia, and finally passed

4708-701: The Interim Government and several Ambazonian movements agreed to create the Southern Cameroons Liberation Council , a united front consisting of both separatists and federalists. However, despite its attempts at uniting the separatists, critics accused the Sako cabinet of incompetence and misappropriation of funds. On May 2, 2019, a document signed by Ayuk Tabe declared that the Sako-led interim cabinet had been dissolved, and that his own pre-arrest cabinet had been restored. The document expressed recognition for

4815-473: The Interim Government, as the Sako-led cabinet refused to step down. In June, the Ambazonia Restoration Council impeached Ayuk Tabe for "treasonous misconduct", and declared that a proper change of leadership would be initiated in three months. This marked the start of the 2019 Ambazonian leadership crisis . The AGovC threw its support behind Ayuk Tabe and in August it formally allied itself with

4922-486: The London chapter of International PEN agreed to pay his fine in order that he might seek treatment for his worsening health condition. In February 2014, French citizen Michel Thierry Atangana was released from a makeshift Yaoundé prison where, under Biya's orders, he had been arbitrarily detained for 17 years under false claims of embezzlement because of supposed closeness to presidential candidate Titus Edzoa . Considered

5029-545: The NGO Human Rights Watch (HRW) denounced “intense repression” by the Cameroonian government against the opposition, after the government of Paul Biya declared the grouping of its main parties in two platforms “illegal”. During 2016 and 2017, under Paul Biya's reign, large scale protests broke out among Anglophone Cameroonians in the area of the formerly British Southern Cameroons . Protestors complained that Anglophone regions in Cameroon (the Northwest Region and

5136-529: The Nigerian state had been intimately involved in the governance of the peninsula. On 10 October 2002, after more than eight years of hearings and deliberations, the court ruled in favour of Cameroon, instructing Nigeria to withdraw immediately from the region. Although Nigeria initially protested the decision, and although it caused significant unrest in Bakassi , Olusegun Obasanjo 's regime largely cooperated with

5243-611: The Red Dragons, Tigers, ARA, Seven Kata, ABL, with varying levels of coordination with and loyalty to Ambazonian political leaders. In practice, pro-independence militias operate largely autonomously from political leaders, who are mostly in exile. On 5 January 2018, members of the Ambazonia Interim Government in exile in Abuja, Nigeria , including President Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe , were arrested and deported to Cameroon into

5350-650: The Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), with the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC) as the executive governing body. Younger activists formed the Southern Cameroons Youth League (SCYL) in Buea on 28 May 1995. The SCNC sent a delegation, led by John Foncha, to the United Nations, which was received on 1 June 1995 and presented a petition against the 'annexation' of the Southern Cameroons by French Cameroon. This

5457-406: The Southern Cameroons delegation at a conference in London asked for a separate region. The British agreed, and Southern Cameroons became an autonomous region with its capital still at Buea. Elections were held in 1954 and the parliament met on 1 October 1954, with E. M. L. Endeley as Premier. The United Nations organised a plebiscite in the region on 11 February 1961 which put two alternatives to

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5564-590: The United States and Germany have expressed concern over the human rights violations and scaled back or cancelled military cooperation with Cameroon over reported abuses. France, the UK as well as the European Parliament have also expressed concern and pushed for negotiations between the parties to resolve the crisis. The separatists assert that Ambazonia is legally governed by the "Interim Government of Ambazonia", as

5671-445: The United States for their lack of response to the growing Cameroonian crisis. In April 2017, a Cameroonian journalist working for Radio France Internationale , Ahmed Abba , was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment by a military tribunal for failing to report acts of terrorism. The judgement was severely criticized by human rights groups including Amnesty International. On 7 November 2018, another Cameroonian journalist, Mimi Mefo ,

5778-403: The accused were found guilty in the 1997 trial, the faction led by Mukete became more assertive. On 1 October 1999, militants took over Radio Buea to proclaim the independence of Southern Cameroons, but failed to do so before security forces intervened. The leadership and many members of the SCNC were subsequently arrested. After clashes with the police, the SCNC was officially declared illegal by

5885-553: The area to the German territory of Kamerun in 1887. Germany had some trouble establishing control over the hinterlands of Victoria, and fought the Bafut Wars against local fondoms until 1907. Following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles , Kamerun was divided between a French and a British League of Nations Mandate . The French mandate was known as Cameroun, and comprised most of

5992-400: The claimed territory. No country has recognized Ambazonia's existence as of 2024. Until 1961, the territory of these regions was the southern part of a British trust territory, British Cameroon while the rest of Cameroon was a French trust territory, French Cameroon . At independence, a plebiscite was held, and voters in Southern Cameroons opted to join Cameroon as a constituent state of

6099-458: The constitution, as the majority of deputies from West Cameroon had not consented to legitimize the constitutional changes. They argued that Southern Cameroons had effectively been annexed by Cameroon. Shortly afterwards, French Cameroun's political leadership changed the constitution again, appointed French-speaking Paul Biya as Prime Minister and successor to Ahmadou Ahidjo. In a memorandum dated 20 March 1985, Anglophone lawyer and President of

6206-459: The coup plotters to act earlier than they had planned, which may have been a crucial factor in the coup's failure. Under his rule, the country adopted a structural adjustment plan submitted to it by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank , which involved privatization, opening up to competition, and reducing social spending. Civil servants' salaries were reduced by 60%, and the informal sector increased very significantly. In 1985,

6313-433: The custody of government forces to face criminal charges. On 4 February 2018, it was announced that US-based preacher Dr. Samuel Ikome Sako would become the Interim President of the Federal Republic of Ambazonia, temporarily succeeding Ayuk Tabe. However, despite receiving a life sentence on terrorism charges from a Cameroon court, on 2 May 2019, Ayuk Tabe declared from prison the dissolution of Sako's caretaker cabinet and

6420-599: The declaration of independence, while fourteen Cameroonian troops were killed in attacks claimed by the Ambazonia Defence Forces . The Cameroonian government stated that the declaration had no legal weight and on 30 November 2017, the President of Cameroon signaled a harder line on separatist attacks on police and soldiers. A massive military deployment accompanied by curfews and forced evacuations of entire villages. This temporarily ended hopes for continued dialogue and kicked off full-fledged guerilla war in Southern Cameroons. Several different armed factions have emerged such as

6527-407: The departure of Paul Biya as president. The demonstrators were severely repressed with reports of a hundred dead and thousands of arrests. In the October 2011 presidential election , Biya secured a sixth term in office, polling 77.9% of votes cast. John Fru Ndi was his nearest rival, polling 10%. Biya's opponents alleged wide-scale fraud in the election and procedural irregularities were noted by

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6634-446: The differences between the Interim Government and the Ambazonia Defence Forces, which is loyal to the AGovC. On December 31, 2018, he announced that a Mobile Wing Police would be established, and that the separatists would abandon their defensive strategy and seize the offensive. He also promised to take action against anyone involved in the kidnapping of civilians, which had become a growing problem in Southern Cameroons. On March 31, 2019,

6741-516: The dispute as a "misunderstanding", and its resolution as "a model of peaceful conflict resolution in Africa." At the request of Biya and Obasanjo, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan established the Cameroon–Nigeria Mixed Commission to negotiate a smooth implementation of the International Court of Justice's 2002 ruling. The commission's responsibilities included demarcating the entirety of the Cameroon–Nigeria border, facilitating cross-border cooperation and troop withdrawals from Bakassi, and protecting

6848-408: The early phase of the Anglophone Crisis, the "Southern Cameroons Broadcasting Corporation" (formed by exiles in South Africa) was a major channel to distribute propaganda in Cameroon to incite Anglophones into siding with the rebels. Cameroon attempted to then ban the channel, but failed as people could still view it on the internet. On the same day the BBC reported that, Voice of America reported that

6955-473: The enforced use of French in the classroom. In January 2017, the government ordered a suspension of Internet services in the Northwest and Southwest provinces. Criticism of the suspension and increased opposition led to resumption of services in late April. By June 2017, protests in Cameroon's English-speaking provinces and cities led to police responding with force, with four protesters killed and more than 100 arrested. International criticism has been levied at

7062-448: The former German territory. The British mandate was an elongated strip of land along the border of Colonial Nigeria , consisting of Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons, including the historical Ambas Bay Protectorate. This territory was organized as British Cameroons . The British administered the territories through indirect rule , allowing native authorities to administer the population according to their own traditions. In 1953,

7169-426: The goodwill of the Nigerian government. On 13 September 2022, long-term IG spokesperson Chris Anu (brother of deceased separatist general Lekeaka Oliver ) was voted President of Ambazonia after a six months transition period of Marianta Njomia elapsed. On January 21 2023, the government of Canada announced that the warring parties had signed an agreement to enter a peace process facilitated by Canada. The agreement

7276-514: The government into early 2017, including the banning of civil society organizations, cutting off phone and internet connections from January to April, and arrests of demonstrators. Although the government established a Commission to focus on Anglophone grievances and took steps to address issues of language equity in courts and schools, continued distrust and harsh responses to protests prevented significant deescalation. By late 2017, with dialogue efforts moribund and violence continuing on both sides,

7383-400: The helm of the party at an "extraordinary session" of the CNU party held on 14 September 1983. In November 1983, Biya announced that the next presidential election would be held on 14 January 1984; it had been previously scheduled for 1985. He was the sole candidate in this election and won 99.98% of the vote. In February 1984, Ahidjo was put on trial in absentia for alleged involvement in

7490-403: The idea of an Ambazonian nation state, exile activists have also set up a variety of other organizations to support the Interim Government. These include the "Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front" (SCACUF), the "Southern Cameroon Broadcasting Corporation" (SCBC) to spread propaganda, and a "Southern Cameroon Ambazonia Education Board" (SCAEB) to enforce a new curriculum in schools in

7597-509: The idea of an armed struggle, preferring civil disobedience and a diplomatic campaign. In early November, the Interim Government condemned an ADF attack on gendarmes. In January 2018, most members of the Interim Government were arrested by Nigerian authorities and extradited to Cameroon. They were subsequently imprisoned for almost a year, before a trial started in December 2018. This became controversial in Nigeria, as most of those deported had submitted claims for political asylum. In March 2019,

7704-401: The job the Sako-led cabinet had done, but claimed that infighting had rendered it unfit to continue; the caretaker cabinet has lost the ability to reconcile our people and, in doing so, has imperiled the identity and mission of the interim government to complete the decolonization of Southern Cameroons through advancing our collective national interests. This triggered a leadership crisis within

7811-587: The labour market of a Francophone Cameroon. Militias are also known to conscript people, including children, into their ranks. Some rebels have also kidnapped girls to serve as sex slaves. Many guerilla groups have joined the Ambazonia Self-Defence Council (ASC) under the Interim Government. Major non-ASC groups include the Ambazonia Defence Forces (ADF) and the Southern Cameroons Defence Forces (SOCADEF), which both cooperate with

7918-408: The latter's surprise resignation in 1982 and consolidated power in a 1983–1984 staged attempted coup in which he eliminated all of his major rivals. Biya introduced political reforms within the context of a one-party system in the 1980s, later accepting the introduction of multiparty politics in the early 1990s under serious pressure. He won the contentious 1992 presidential election with 40% of

8025-543: The leading Ambazonian nationalist movements organized the umbrella organization Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front (SCACUF). SCACUF unilaterally declared the region's independence as Ambazonia on 1 October, the anniversary of Southern Cameroons' independence from the United Kingdom. SCACUF sought to transition itself into an interim government with its leader, Sisiku Ayuk Tabe Julius , as interim president. At least 17 people were killed in protests following

8132-463: The local cocoa industry to sustain themselves. A significant number of rebels also use religion to justify their operations. Protective magic and charms ( odeshi ) are important to many insurgents, but "de-contextualised Biblical and Koranic verses" are also used in propaganda videos. Rebel leaders such as General No Pity have publicly suggested that they enjoy mythical and religious protection to enhance their reputation. Ambazonians generally use

8239-536: The name Ambazonia . Numerous civilians and activists have accused Biya's government forces of burning villages, raping women, extrajudicial killings of civilians, and acts of genocide. A petition to the United Nations gave details of police raping students at a university. The National Commission for Human Rights and Freedoms embarked on a fact-finding mission in Buea to investigate allegations of human rights abuses in

8346-437: The people of Ambazonia." This Northwest Region (Cameroon) location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Southwest Region (Cameroon) location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This government -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front Ambazonia , alternatively

8453-581: The people: union with Nigeria or union with Cameroon. The third option, independence, was opposed by the British representative to the UN Trusteeship Council, Sir Andrew Cohen , and as a result was not listed. In the plebiscite, 60% of voters in the Northern Cameroons voted for union with Nigeria, while 70% of voters in the Southern Cameroons opted for union with Cameroon. The results owed partly to

8560-454: The plural, single-ballot vote and was re-elected by large margins in 1997 , 2004 , 2011 , and 2018 . Opposition politicians and Western governments have alleged voting irregularities and fraud on each of these occasions. Multiple sources have provided evidence that he did not win the elections in 1992 and the political opposition along with others have alleged subsequent elections suffered from rampant fraud. Ethnically Beti , Paul Biya

8667-402: The presidency. Following the creation of a unitary state in 1972, he became Prime Minister of Cameroon on 30 June 1975. In June 1979, a new law designated the prime minister as the president's constitutional successor. Ahidjo unexpectedly announced his resignation on 4 November 1982, and Biya accordingly succeeded him as president of Cameroon on 6 November. Because Biya is a Catholic from

8774-404: The primary participants in this coup attempt, which was seen by many as an attempt to restore that group's supremacy. Biya, however, chose to emphasize national unity and did not focus blame on northern Muslims. Ahidjo was widely believed to have orchestrated the coup attempt, and Biya is thought to have learned of the plot in advance and to have disbanded the Republican Guard in response, forcing

8881-685: The quality of governance, with trivial decisions often delayed until he got round to delivering them, and that there was too much government interference in the economy in general. Biya regularly spends extended periods of time in Switzerland at the Hotel InterContinental Geneva where the former director Herbert Schott reportedly said he comes to work without being disturbed. These extended stays away from Cameroon – while sometimes as short as two weeks and sometimes as long as three months – are almost always referred to as "short stays" in

8988-486: The rebel areas. Currently, a proposal by members of the Ambazonia Interim Government in exile states that the Federal Republic of Ambazonia would be a federation made up of three autonomous states (however, within the proposed constitution in 'Article 1, Section 1.a' this number may be subject to change). Ambazonian separatists have a major presence in the Internet , and effectively use social media to spread their ideas. In

9095-787: The region. A June 2018 report by the BBC News found a widespread pattern of villages throughout the Southwest Region being burnt, including one video of men wearing government-issued BIR (Bataillon d'Intervention Rapide) equipment. The BIR is a special force body that reports directly to President Biya. The report also included a video of a man being tortured by men appearing to be Cameroonian gendarmes . Biya's Minister of Communication, Issa Tchiroma , responded by stating that anyone can use government equipment to commit false flag attacks , and said that Biya's government would investigate. Individual sources testify that all of those sent to fight

9202-967: The restoration of his own cabinet. Sako resisted, leading to the 2019 Ambazonian leadership crisis . As the violence intensified, international efforts to resolve the crisis picked up. On 13 May 2019, the United Nations Security Council had an informal meeting to discuss the Anglophone Crisis . Peace talks mediated by the Swiss government have fallen apart multiple times, primarily due to factional divisions and lack of actual control over militias by separatist leaders making even preliminary steps difficult. The war has been characterized by guerilla attacks by separatist militias against both security forces and against civilians suspected of collaboration or simply failing to abide militia's declared school and election boycotts or "lockdowns" which prevent all travel and activity. Many militias have sought to enforce

9309-504: The rights of locals. The commission was chaired by Mohamed Ibn Chambas and had met 38 times by 2015.<ef name=PRC /> As of July 2019, 2,001 kilometres of boundary (out of an estimated 2,100 kilometres) had been surveyed and agreed to by both countries, including the border at Bakassi. In May 2007 in Abuja, the commission finalised the maritime boundary, but in 2015, the Cameroonian government reported that "a few tens of kilometres remain[ed]

9416-531: The ruling. In June 2006, at the Greentree estate in Long Island, New York , the countries signed the Greentree Agreement , which required Nigeria to withdraw its troops from Bakassi by 4 August 2008, and also required Cameroon to protect the rights of the Nigerian citizens who lived in Bakassi. The transfer of the territory to Cameroon proceeded peacefully under the agreement. The Cameroonian government now presents

9523-473: The separatist militias operating in Cameroon itself. For instance, separatist exiles have organized fundraising campaigns which included the introduction of their own cryptocurrency , the AmbaCoin ; the resulting money is then used to buy weaponry for the militias on the ground. The commanders of some militias also operate from exile. In order to provide the separatist movement with some cohesion and strengthen

9630-454: The southern region of Cameroon, it was considered surprising that he was chosen by Ahidjo, a Muslim from the north, as his successor. Biya's father, who was a catechist, wanted him to join the clergy, but at the age of 16, while in Catholic school, he was expelled. After Biya became president, Ahidjo initially remained head of the ruling Cameroon National Union (CNU/ UNC). Biya was brought into

9737-560: The state-owned press and other media. In February 2008, he passed a bill that allows for having an additional term in office as president which was followed by civil unrests throughout the country. The main violent riots took place in the Western, English-speaking part of the country starting with a "strike" initiated by taxi drivers in Douala, allegedly causing more than 200 casualties in the end. In 2009, his holiday in France allegedly cost $ 40,000

9844-495: The terms "sugarcane" or "stick" for weapons and "groundnuts" for cartridges. Lando argued that the usage of more sacrosanct terms by only some rebel factions may had resulted from the internal disagreements within the separatist movement. In contrast, the term "frying popcorn" for combat situations is very common among rebels. When rebels state that they "wasted" an individual, they describe an assassination. Traitors are termed "blacklegs". Those who had suffered amputations, often as

9951-449: The union, taking its natural resources with it. Following a French Cameroon unilateral referendum on 20 May 1972, a new constitution was adopted in Cameroon which replaced the federal state with a unitary state , and also gave more power to the president. Southern Cameroons lost its autonomous status and became the Northwest Region and the Southwest Region of the Republic of Cameroon. Pro-independence groups claimed that this violated

10058-459: The vote, although the opposition again alleged widespread fraud. Biya was sworn in on 3 November. After being re-elected in 2004, Biya was barred by a two-term limit in the 1996 Constitution from running for president again in 2011; however, he sought to revise this, to allow him to run again. In his 2008 New Year's message, Biya expressed support for revising the Constitution, saying that it

10165-464: The vote. There was no provision for a runoff; the opposition was unable to unite around a single candidate. The second placed candidate, John Fru Ndi of the opposition Social Democratic Front (SDF), officially received about 36%. The results were strongly disputed by the opposition, which alleged fraud. In the October 1997 presidential election , which was boycotted by the main opposition parties, Biya

10272-402: The western part of the country. Although Biya made some efforts to open up the political environment, his regime still retains clear authoritarian characteristics and has largely bucked the trend toward democracy in Africa since the 1990s. Under the constitution, Biya has sweeping executive and legislative powers. He even has considerable authority over the judiciary; the courts can only review

10379-468: Was arrested after reporting on social media that the Cameroonian military was behind the murder of an American missionary in the country, Charles Trumann, in October of that year. Mefo was charged with "publishing and propagating information that infringes on the territorial integrity of the Republic of Cameroon," but was released and charges were dropped on 12 November after her arrest was condemned by both local and international media groups. In March 2024,

10486-707: Was born in the village of Mvomeka'a in what is now the South Region of Cameroon . He studied at the Lycée General Leclerc, Yaoundé , and in France at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand , Paris , going on to the Institut des hautes études d'Outre-Mer , where he graduated in 1961 with a higher education diploma in public law. As a Chargé de Mission in post-independence 1960s Cameroon, Biya rose to prominence under President Ahmadou Ahidjo . After becoming director of

10593-536: Was followed by a signature referendum the same year, which the organisers claim produced a 99% vote in favour of independence with 315,000 people voting. SCNC activities were routinely disrupted by police. On 23 March 1997, about ten people were killed in a raid on a gendarme camp in Bamenda . The police arrested between 200 and 300 people, mostly SCNC supporters, but also members of the Social Democratic Front , an opposition party with significant support in

10700-489: Was largely based on the Anglo-German agreement of 1913 and the 1975 Maroua Declaration. Nigeria, on the other hand, argued that the peninsula had been the territory of the chiefs of Old Calabar , who had transferred their title to Nigeria upon its independence. As support for this argument it pointed to the Nigerian collection of taxes in the region, the widespread use of Nigerian passports by its residents, and other signs that

10807-544: Was met with a violent government crackdown, which led to rioting and violence against security forces and, in 2017, a unilateral declaration of independence by Ambazonian leaders. The violence developed into a guerrilla war , and as of 2023 , clashes continue, with population centers and strategic locations largely controlled by the government engaged in counterinsurgency actions, with swathes of more remote, rural areas controlled by separatist militias and used to launch guerrilla attacks. Ambazonian forces have struggled to form

10914-593: Was officially formed on October 31, 2017, with Tabe assuming the role as President of Ambazonia and SCACUF forming the Interim Government. By the time SCACUF transformed into the Interim Government, a separatist war had been raging for almost two months. Several separatist militias were active, with the largest one - the Ambazonia Defence Forces (ADF) - answering to the Ambazonia Governing Council (AGVC), led by Cho Ayaba and with Benedict Kuah as Chief of staff . The Interim Government initially rejected

11021-585: Was one of 53 countries that, in June 2020, backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations . Cameroon voted against several anti-Israel UN resolutions, and was the only nation to join Israel in voting against the UN resolution "Assistance to Palestine Refugees". Cameroon cut ties with Israel from 1973 to 1986 and was one of the first states to restore relations. The government of Cameroon uses Israeli armored vehicles, and Cameroon's Rapid Reaction Force, often shortened (by its French name) to BIR,

11128-516: Was re-elected with 92.6 percent of the vote; he was sworn in on 3 November. He has been consistently re-elected as the National President of the RDPC; he was re-elected at the party's second extraordinary congress on 7 July 2001 and its third extraordinary congress on 21 July 2006. Biya won another seven-year term in the 11 October 2004 presidential election , officially taking 70.92 percent of

11235-579: Was signed by the Cameroonian government, the Ambazonia Governing Council (and its armed wing, the ADF), the African People's Liberation Movement (and its armed wing, SOCADEF ), the Interim Government of Ambazonia, and the Ambazonia Coalition Team. On 2 December 2023, Sako's Interim Government passed a "Full Restoration Bill", officially changing their name from the Interim Government of Ambazonia to

11342-461: Was subsequently given a two-year prison term on charges of "insult to character" and organizing an "illegal demonstration" for attempting to hold a public reading. Amnesty International and International PEN 's Writers in Prison Committee both protested his arrest and issued appeals on his behalf; Amnesty International also named him a prisoner of conscience . He was freed on 2 May 2011 when

11449-410: Was undemocratic to limit the people's choice. The proposed removal of term limits was among the grievances expressed during violent protests in late February 2008. Nevertheless, on 10 April 2008, the National Assembly voted to change the Constitution to remove term limits. Given the RDPC's control of the National Assembly, the change was overwhelmingly approved, with 157 votes in favor and five opposed;

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