113-547: The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries . The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,000,000 km (2,700,000 sq mi), or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Bolivia , Brazil , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Peru , Suriname , and Venezuela , as well as the territory of French Guiana . Most of
226-451: A bird, to attract females. Within the lek, each female has her own perch on a low branch, while the males own a "court" on the ground below that is cleared of dead leaves by the draughts of each male taking off and landing. The males have a variety of calls and movements, showing off the crest, elongated filaments on the rump, secondary feathers, and the snapping of their bills. Males display on branches about 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) from
339-436: A bright orange bill, an orange iris yellowing as it nears the outer edge, and silky-orange filamentous feathers of the inner remiges . Both sexes also have orange legs and skin. The less conspicuous female is dark brownish-grey overall and has a yellow-tipped black bill, a duller orange iris, and a smaller crest. One-year-old juvenile male looks similar to an adult female but has orange speckles over its body. After two years,
452-669: A fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at the Guayaquil Conference in Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the liberated nations. Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho , securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America. In
565-454: A long history of colonialism , the overwhelming majority of South Americans speak Spanish or Portuguese , and societies and states are rich in Western traditions . Relative to Africa, Asia, and Europe, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars, although high rates of violent crime remain a concern in some countries. South America occupies the southern portion of
678-516: A low-water season (known popularly as summer), and a wet season (known popularly as winter) during which, the rivers flood the adjacent, low-lying forests. The climate of the basin is generally hot and humid . In some areas, however, the summer months (June–September) can bring cold snaps, fueled by Antarctic winds traveling along the adjacent mountain range. The average annual temperature is around 25-degree and 28 degree Celsius with little to no distinction between summer and winter season. Amazonia
791-653: A part of Oceania, also administered by Chile), the Galápagos Islands (administered by Ecuador , sometimes considered part of Oceania), and Tierra del Fuego (split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administers Fernando de Noronha , Trindade and Martim Vaz , and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago , while the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas ) and South Georgia and
904-481: A site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, Moche (100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At
1017-670: A subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively, Mediterranean oceanic climate , temperate of
1130-621: Is one of the two longest rivers in the world . A team of scientists has claimed that the Amazon is longer than the Nile , but debate about its exact length continues. The Amazon system transports the largest volume of water of any river system, accounting for about 20% of the total water carried to the oceans by rivers. Some of the Amazon rainforests are deforested because of an increase in cattle ranches and soybean fields. The Amazon basin formerly flowed west to
1243-504: Is scarcely populated . There are scattered settlements inland, but most of the population lives in a few larger cities on the banks of the Amazon and other major rivers, such as in Iquitos – Loreto in Peru , Manaus - Amazonas State , and Belém , Pará . In many regions, the forest has been cleared for soya bean plantations and ranching (the most extensive non-forest use of the land); some of
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#17328447234721356-410: Is 1.5 million distributed. There are an estimated 100 uncontacted tribal groups. The largest organization fighting for the indigenous peoples in this area is COICA . It is a supra organization encompassing all indigenous rights organizations working in the Amazon basin area, and covers the people living in several countries. The river is the principal path of transportation for people and produce in
1469-464: Is a less likely occurrence of female-elicited aggression. Male Guianan cock-of-the-rock "delight in homosexuality" with almost 40 percent engaging in a form of homosexual activity and a small percentage never copulating with females. One possible advantage to lek formation (in Guianan cock-of-the-rock and other species) is severe selection and consequent rapid evolutionary advancement, all of which
1582-438: Is an important factor in lek formation and breeding. The main predators of the Guianan cock-of-the-rock are harpy eagles and black-and-white hawk-eagles . The Guianan cock-of-the-rock is a stout-bodied bird with a prominent half-moon crest. It is a sexually dimorphic bird. The male's crest is more pronounced than the female's and is bright orange. The males also have an orange-tipped black tail, black, orange, and white wings,
1695-466: Is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region), therefore giving the Southern Cone more oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures. The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between
1808-588: Is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean ; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The continent includes twelve sovereign states : Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , Uruguay , and Venezuela ; two dependent territories : the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and
1921-452: Is brownish/dark smokey grey in colour, and generally less noticeable than the males because of their nesting work in rocky areas. The male's feathers are a bright orange. Both have a heavy body, broad-based bill and wear a remarkable half-moon crest on the head. It is one of two species of the genus Rupicola , the other being the Andean cock-of-the-rock . The Guianan cock-of-the-rock lives across
2034-460: Is by far the most populous South American country, with almost half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power. Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. The geography of western South America
2147-549: Is dominated by the Andes mountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as the Amazon , Orinoco and Paraná flow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of the Southern Cone located in the middle latitudes . The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of Indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves . Given
2260-436: Is done. The male's energy instead is devoted to very elaborate display rituals that show off his magnificent plumage . These displays take place in communal leks , where 40 or more males may gather to challenge rivals and beckon to the females. The displaying male purposely contrasts himself from the forest, shows his crest and plumage so much that the bill and tail become obscured; almost making him difficult to recognize as
2373-586: Is given by the number of different bird families that reside in these humid forests. An example of such would be the cotinga family, to which the Guianan cock-of-the-rock belong. Birds such as toucans , and hummingbirds are also found here. Macaws are famous for duck gathering by the hundreds along the clay cliffs of the Amazon River. In the western Amazon hundreds of macaws and other parrots descend to exposed river banks to consume clay on an almost daily basis,
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#17328447234722486-613: Is land. The splash tetra is famous for laying its eggs on plants above water, keeping them moist by continuously splashing on them, the South American lungfish can survive underground in a mucous cocoon during the dry season, some small rivulid killifish can jump over land between water sources (sometimes moving relatively long distances, even uphill) and may deliberately jump onto land to escape aquatic predators, and an undescribed species of worm-like Phreatobius catfish lives in waterlogged leaf litter near (not in) streams. Some of
2599-409: Is less risk of predation. In a group, there are more individuals to alert the group about an approaching predator. All the birds in the groups will be vigilant in looking for a predator because there is an advantage to seeing the predator first. There is also the risk that in a bigger group, there will be more false alarm signals. The common signal is vocalization , after which the birds will fly up into
2712-595: Is now Colombia. They established the Muisca Confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos , that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: the Cañaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimú Empire (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas , and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at
2825-407: Is often about 3 metres (10 ft) away. The females and males live separately; only when it is time to mate do females fly over to observe and choose a male. When this occurs, the females tap the males from behind and insemination quickly follows. When females approach a lek, the males stand firmly and present themselves rigidly. Mating success is dependent on a variety of factors that range from
2938-476: Is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. It is home to many unique species of animals including the llama , anaconda , piranha , jaguar , vicuña , and tapir , and to one of the largest known insects in the world, the Titan beetle . The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity , with Brazil estimated to contain 10% of Earth's species . 83% of South America's large mammals ( megafauna ) became extinct at
3051-478: Is one of two species of the genus Rupicola . It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 as the type species of its genus. Its closest relative and congener , the Andean cock-of-the-rock ( Rupicola peruvianus ), is similar in body shape and colouration, though the two are wholly allopatric from each other. Their closest family relatives are the Red cotingas (Genus Phoenicircus ). The two Rupicola species are in
3164-664: Is possible due to the high expendability of males. Only a few males are needed to fertilize the next generation. The courtship behaviour is similarly theorized to have arisen from differences in the division of labour between the two sexes. Females expend their energy on building nests and rearing young, while males spend most of their time and energy on finding mates and caring for their plumage. Guianan cocks-of-the-rock form large leks, averaging 55 adult males. The males in these display leks were especially vulnerable to attacks and predation by large snakes and other natural predators. In manipulated groups of smaller size, around 6, predation
3277-509: Is produced for use in urban areas. Exploitation of bushmeat , particularly deer and turtles is common. Extensive deforestation , particularly in Brazil , is leading to the extinction of known and unknown species, reducing biological diversity and adversely impacting soil, water, and air quality. A final part of the deforestation process is the large-scale production of charcoal for industrial processes such as steel manufacturing. Soils within
3390-449: Is rapid evolutionary selection within the species for brighter plumage and more conspicuous behaviour patterns in the males. The bright colouration also makes the males more susceptible to predation. Males are more expendable for this reason; only a small number of males are needed within any generation in order to perpetuate the species. While sexual selection leads to bright plumage, natural selection, in turn, favors defensive colouration in
3503-411: Is suggested to have the effect of redirecting females towards the hassling male. Yearlings often disrupted courtships of the more mature adults on the basis of practice for future courtships, since the yearlings do not possess any territory within the lek. Female disruption was an uncommon event that had little, if any, effect on the accessibility of a male. Young males of highly promiscuous species such as
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3616-682: Is the center of diversity for Neotropical fishes . About 45% (more than 1,000 species) of the known Amazonian fish species are endemic to the basin. The remarkable species richness can in part be explained by the large differences between the various parts of the Amazon basin, resulting in many fish species that are endemic to small regions. For example, fauna in clearwater rivers differs from fauna in white and blackwater rivers , fauna in slow moving sections show distinct differences compared to that in rapids , fauna in small streams differ from that in major rivers, and fauna in shallow sections show distinct differences compared to that in deep parts. By far
3729-523: Is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among four subregions : the Andean states , Caribbean South America , The Guianas , and the Southern Cone . Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The Dutch ABC islands ( Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao ),
3842-510: The Altiplano , Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography. The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what
3955-572: The Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina ( San Andrés Island , Providencia Island , and Santa Catalina Island etc., which are administered by Colombia ) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America. Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are the Chiloé Archipelago and Robinson Crusoe Island (both administered by Chile), Easter Island (culturally
4068-802: The Atacama Desert ; the wettest place on earth, López de Micay in Colombia; the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest ; the highest capital city, La Paz , Bolivia ; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca ; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica , the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro , Chile. South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin , and petroleum. These resources have brought high income to its countries, especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However,
4181-686: The Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait ) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama . Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the Monte Verde II site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago. From around 13,000 years ago,
4294-619: The Caribbean colonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the New World . Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866. In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750,
4407-465: The Fishtail projectile point style became widespread across South America, with its disappearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna. Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago. By 2000 BC, many agrarian communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along
4520-467: The Fortaleza area, contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt , one of the oldest-known civilizations in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world. Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by Chavín by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at
4633-688: The Maracaibo Lake and the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates an equatorial climate of the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory. The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have a humid subtropical climate with dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have
Amazon basin - Misplaced Pages Continue
4746-585: The Orinoco Llanos and in the Guianas Plateau , the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, with Chocó in Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas. The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject to extratropical cyclones , and most of
4859-466: The Pacific Ocean until the Andes formed, causing the basin to flow eastward towards the Atlantic Ocean. Politically the basin is divided into Peruvian Amazonia , Amazônia Legal of Brazil, the Amazon natural region of Colombia , Amazonas (Venezuelan state) , and parts of Bolivia and Ecuador . (km) (km) Plant growth is quite dense and its variety of animal inhabitants is comparatively high due to
4972-539: The Portuguese Crown abolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples in colonial Brazil , under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas on slave ships , under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold in slave markets . After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery
5085-705: The Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil , Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI , proclaimed the independent Kingdom of Brazil in 1822, which later became the Empire of Brazil . Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons in Bahia , Cisplatina and Pará , independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by
5198-500: The Riograndense Republic ). Guianan cock-of-the-rock Pipra rupicola Linnaeus, 1766 The Guianan cock-of-the-rock ( Rupicola rupicola ) is a species of cotinga , a passerine bird from South America. It is about 30 cm (12 in) in length and weighs about 200 to 220 g (7.1 to 7.8 oz). It is found in tropical rainforests , near its preferred habitat of rocky outcrops. The female's plumage
5311-587: The South American Plate . South America is home to several superlatives, including the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall , Angel Falls in Venezuela; the highest single-drop waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River ; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth,
5424-588: The Spanish American wars of independence between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the royalists , who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the Enlightenment . Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the Absolutist Restoration , as the royalists got the upper hand in
5537-404: The jaguar , mountain lion , and ocelot can also be predators, along with snakes such as the bird snake , tree boas , boa constrictor , tiger rat snake , and fer-de-lance . The species is rare in captivity, but breeding has been achieved at a small number of facilities. The world's first successful captive breeding was at Dallas World Aquarium (US) in 2008. In larger lek groups, there
5650-524: The largest strict freshwater fish in the world. The bull shark and common sawfish , which have been recorded far up the Amazon, may reach even greater sizes, but they are euryhaline and often seen in marine waters. In contrast to the giants, there are Amazonian fish from several families that are less than 2 cm (0.8 in) long. The smallest are likely the Leptophilypnion sleeper gobies, which do not surpass 1 cm (0.4 in) and are among
5763-712: The native populations had no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mit'a also contributed to the depopulation. After this, enslaved Africans , who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore,
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#17328447234725876-457: The smallest fish in the world. The Amazon supports very large fisheries, including well-known species of large catfish (such as Brachyplatystoma , which perform long breeding migrations up the Amazon), arapaima and tambaqui , and is also home to many species that are important in the aquarium trade , such as the oscar , discus , angelfish , Corydoras catfish and neon tetra . Although
5989-841: The subfamily Rupicolinae , which also includes other species of cotingas such as the before-mentioned Red cotingas (Genus Phoenicircus, which is a sister genus to Rupicola) , Snowornis pihas , and the berryeaters (Genus Carpornis ). As suggested by its name, the Guianan cock-of-the-rock is found in the Guianan Shield , occurring in French Guiana , Suriname , Guyana , southern Venezuela , eastern Colombia , and northern Amazonian Brazil . Its preferred habitats are humid forests near rocky outcrops. They are normally found at an altitude of 300 to 2,000 m (980 to 6,560 ft). The Guianan cock-of-the-rock has distinctive territorial markings. Males usually take dominance of an area on
6102-468: The Amazon are Portuguese and Spanish . There are hundreds of native languages still spoken in the Amazon, most of which are critically endangered . Many tribal groups live in the Amazon Basin, often in relative isolation. It is estimated 400 or more tribal groups have lived in the Amazon Basin for hundreds of years with their own culture, language, and lifestyle. Today total population of Amazon basin
6215-639: The Amazon basin, has several other cavefish species. The deeper part of the major Amazonian rivers are always dark and a few species have adaptions similar to cavefish (reduced pigment and eyes). Among these are the knifefish Compsaraia and Orthosternarchus , some Cetopsis whale catfish (especially C. oliveirai ), some Xyliphius and Micromyzon banjo catfish, and the loricariid catfish Loricaria spinulifera , L. pumila , Peckoltia pankimpuju , Panaque bathyphilus and Panaqolus nix (these five also occur in "normal" forms of shallower waters). The perhaps most unusual habitat used by Amazonian fish
6328-418: The Amazon include Brazil nut , rubber tree and Assai palm . More than 1,400 species of mammals are found in the Amazon, the majority of which are species of bats and rodents . Its larger mammals include the jaguar , ocelot , capybara , puma and South American tapir . About 1,500 bird species inhabit the Amazon basin. The biodiversity of the Amazon and the sheer number of diverse bird species
6441-528: The Amazon is the second biggest peak of Yerupajá at 6,635 metres (21,768 ft). The Amazon River Basin occupies the entire central and eastern area of South America, lying to the east of the Andes mountain range and extending from the Guyana Plateau in the north to the Brazilian Plateau in the south. With a length of about 6,400 km (4,000 mi) before it drains into the Atlantic Ocean , it
6554-399: The Amazon. Unlike temperate frogs which are mostly limited to habitats near the water, tropical frogs are most abundant in the trees and relatively few are found near bodies of water on the forest floor . The reason for this occurrence is quite simple: frogs must always keep their skin moist since almost half of their respiration is carried out through their skin. The high humidity of
6667-732: The Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border , although some may consider the border instead to be the Panama Canal . Geopolitically and geographically, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America . Almost all of mainland South America sits on
6780-666: The Argentine Patagonia is desert . In the Pampas of Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In the semiarid coast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime. Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as
6893-678: The Breton type and, already in Tierra del Fuego , cold climate of the Siberian type. The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of the tropical region east of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone , South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. In
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#17328447234727006-495: The Cock-of-the rock often failed to mate in their first year, probably because older, more experienced males will enjoy the majority of matings. In this strong system of sexual selection, the successive breeding of dominant and aggressive males leads to high sex drives and the endurance of polygyny . A theory suggests that the selection of these aggressive males also puts a premium, or value, on female characteristics. Hence, there
7119-690: The Earth." 2°18′35″S 54°53′17″W / 2.3096°S 54.8881°W / -2.3096; -54.8881 South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere , with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere . It can also be described as the southern subregion of the Americas . South America
7232-447: The South Sandwich Islands ( biogeographically and hydrologically associated with Antarctica) have been administered as two British Overseas Territories under the Crown , whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina . An isolated volcanic island on the South American Plate , Ascension Island is geologically a part of South America. Administered as a dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ,
7345-722: The South Sandwich Islands ; and one internal territory : French Guiana . The ABC islands of the Dutch Caribbean (north of Venezuela in the Leeward Antilles ), Ascension Island (a part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ), Bouvet Island (a dependency of Norway ), Panama , and the Caribbean island country of Trinidad and Tobago may also be considered parts of South America. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021 has been estimated at more than 434 million. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil
7458-830: The Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church 's evangelization in Quechua , Aymara , and Guaraní actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought
7571-483: The Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the House of Braganza avoided capture by escaping to Brazil . Napoleon captured King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which created Juntas to rule in the name of the captured king. Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began
7684-423: The United Kingdom. The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as the Republic of Entre Ríos and
7797-411: The basin is covered by the Amazon rainforest , also known as Amazonia . With a 5.5 million km (2.1 million sq mi) area of dense tropical forest , it is the largest rainforest in the world. The Amazon River begins in the Andes Mountains at the west of the basin with its main tributary the Marañón River and Apurimac River in Peru . The highest point in the watershed of
7910-536: The birds. There is higher fitness in birds monitoring nests whose colouration acts as camouflage-protection from predation. Fairly common in its large range, and with its population stable, the Guianan cock-of-the-rock is considered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature to be a Least Concern on its red list of threatened species. The main predators of the Guianan cock-of-the-rock are harpy eagles , black-and-white hawk-eagles , black hawk-eagles , and slaty-backed forest falcons . Felines such as
8023-437: The coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society . South American cultures began domesticating llamas , vicuñas , guanacos , and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods. The rise of plant growing and
8136-461: The concentration in producing one, or few, major export commodities has often hindered the development and diversification of its economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in international markets has led historically to major highs and lows, booms and busts, in the economies of South American states, often causing political instability. This has led for calls to diversify production and increase trade within South America itself. Brazil
8249-535: The conflict. The independence of South America was secured by Simón Bolívar (Venezuela) and José de San Martín (Argentina), the two most important Libertadores . Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towards Lima , the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru . Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized
8362-423: The courts were positioned in the lek: courts that were more centrally placed indicated more successful and higher-ranking males. The females in the study were individually observed to aggregate towards larger, more centrally concentrated leks, demonstrating active female choice. Unlike other species of the family Cotingidae , the Guianan cock-of-the-rock makes its nest on rocky cliff faces and caves rather than in
8475-617: The current Humboldt and Falklands . The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards the Antilles , where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current in the world, the Gulf Stream . South America
8588-453: The elements. The nests themselves are solid moldings formed from mud and plant material deposited into the crevices. Due to the solid nature of these nests, they typically persist from one breeding season to the next. Females will make repairs to their nests as the breeding season begins. The smaller of the two cocks-of-the-rock, the male Guianan takes the lesser part in breeding. It is polygynous and has nothing to do with nesting once mating
8701-533: The end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of the Quaternary extinction event , among the highest of any continent, with the casualties including saber-toothed cats , ground sloths , glyptodonts , gomphotheres , the equines Hippidion and Equus neogeus , and all remaining South American native ungulates . South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing
8814-496: The exception being rainy days. The green anaconda inhabits the shallow waters of the Amazon and the emerald tree boa and boa constrictor live in the Amazonian tree tops. Many reptile species are illegally collected and exported for the international pet trade. Live animals are the fourth largest commodity in the smuggling industry after drugs, diamonds and weapons. More than 1,500 species of amphibians swim and are found in
8927-399: The females lay their eggs around March, nesting in rocky areas. During the height of the mating season , males gather in leks with multiple males defending a social display arena of much greater area than that of a lone male. The males each have their own area on the forest floor where they make their courts. The size of each court is about 1 metre (3 ft) in diameter, and the next bird
9040-532: The focus on the center of activity in the lek is that successful males tended to own courts in the most densely clustered lek areas. Guianan courts are commonly found in the Guianan Shield, a forested region in northeastern South America. The diet of the adult Guianan cock-of-the-rock consists mainly of fruits meaning they are frugivorous . Up to 65 species of fruit have been reported in their diet, primarily from canopy trees or lianas . Three-quarters (75%) of
9153-435: The forested region of northeastern South America. Its diet consists mostly of fruit, but they sometimes feast on small snakes and lizards. The Guianan cock-of-the-rock breeds in the early months of the year and, on average, the female lays her eggs around March. The females choose a mate by flying down to the ground and pecking the male on his rump. The male then turns around and the mating takes place almost immediately. During
9266-432: The fruit eaten by the Guianan cock-of-the-rock at one study site were either black- or red-coloured fruit. In British Guiana , E. Thomas Gilliard found papayas growing at the base of a huge rock. On top of the rock were perched females that were nesting. He found that no other papayas were growing in that part of the forest and speculated that the perched females ate papayas in the forest where they are native and dropped
9379-650: The great city of Cusco , the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu , and "the land of the four regions", in Quechua , the Inca Empire was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system . Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming
9492-412: The ground until a female approaches when the males display and call from individual plots on the ground. Most males copulate with only a few females. However, some are very successful and may copulate with many. Unlike many other bird species, the male does not use resources nor parental care to entice females. Males often engage in courtship disruption practices. In a study conducted by Pepper W. Trail,
9605-405: The ground, although sometimes they occupy middle strata in forests. They make their characteristic marking by clearing out debris from the ground, including twigs, leaves, and pellets. This area is called a "court". Quality of courts is known to have some influence on mate choice. The court quality is determined by the territory density and location to the center of activity in the lek. The reason for
9718-482: The heavy rainfall and the dense and extensive evergreen and coniferous forests . Little sunlight reaches the ground due to the dense roof of canopy by plants. The ground remains dark and damp and only shade-tolerant vegetation will grow here. Orchids and bromeliads exploit trees and other plants to get closer to the sunlight. They grow hanging onto the branches or tree trunks with aerial roots , not as parasites but as epiphytes . Species of tropical trees native to
9831-418: The height of the mating season, males engage in competitive displays in the lek , which is a complex courting behaviour that is done to attract females. Males and females live separately except when the females choose a mate. The mating success varies based on multiple factors, ranging from the plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself. There is speculation that the male–male competition
9944-423: The infrequency of encounters with predators were keeping these lekking males alive. There is speculation that the simulation of male–male competition is important in lek formation and breeding. The colouration of the males allows them to visibly stand out from the brown forest floor. This bright colouration provides a sexual advantage for adult males, increasing their likelihood of successfully mating. The result
10057-443: The inhabitants harvest wild rubber latex , and Brazilian nuts . This is a form of extractive farms, where the trees are not cut down. These are relatively sustainable operations in contrast to lumbering or agriculture dependent on clearing the rainforest. The people live in thatched houses shaped liked beehives. They also build apartment-like houses called " Maloca ", with a steeply slanting roof. The most widely spoken languages in
10170-698: The interactions between adult males, females, and yearlings were observed and linked to mate choice and male dispersion patterns within leks. Adult males produced this disruptive behaviour with varying intensity, which depended on the situation. In lower-intensity disruptions, males usually directed their aggression or threats towards neighboring males, in attempts to improve or maintain breeding status and success. The males that were hassled tended to be more successful and often were disrupted with much greater frequency than males with lower mating success. Higher-intensity disruptions were used by less successful males and directed towards females who wandered by. This behaviour
10283-417: The island is geopolitically a part of Africa. All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America. The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the 30° of latitude south , when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude. In temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This
10396-596: The islands of Trinidad and Tobago ( Trinidad Island and Tobago Island etc.), the State of Nueva Esparta , and the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northern portion of the South American continental shelf and are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in the Caribbean have generally been grouped as a subregion of North America instead. By contrast, Aves Island (administered by Venezuela ) and
10509-465: The juvenile males become mostly orange with brown and grey spots. Males attain their definitive plumage at around three years. Juvenile females look almost identical to their adult counterparts. Guianan cocks-of-the-rock have a total length of approximately 30 cm (12 in) and a total weight of around 200 to 220 g (7.1 to 7.8 oz). The two species of cock-of-the-rock are allopatric , and therefore do not meet with one another. The plumage of
10622-526: The land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands , roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time,
10735-476: The line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors , first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases ( smallpox , influenza , measles , and typhus ) – to which
10848-581: The major fish groups of the Amazon basin include: More than 90% of the animal species in the Amazon are insects , of which about 40% are beetles (Coleoptera constituting almost 25% of all known types of animal life-forms.) Whereas all of Europe has some 321 butterfly species, the Manú National Park in Peru (4000 hectare-survey) has 2300 species, while Tambopata National Reserve (5500 hectare-survey) has at least 1231 species. The Amazon River basin has
10961-491: The male Andean cock-of-the-rock is redder and its wings are mostly black, lacking the orange colouration seen on the male Guianan. The female Andean cock-of-the-rock is reddish brown rather than the brownish-gray of the Guianan. The generic and specific names are derived from the Latin words rupes "rock" or "cliff", and cola "inhabiting", which express its habit of nesting on rock walls. The Guianan cock-of-the-rock
11074-453: The mid-17th century. It became a Dutch colony in 1667. The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via the slave trade . European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain
11187-481: The most diverse orders in the Amazon are Characiformes (43% of total fish species in the Amazon) and Siluriformes (39%), but other groups with many species include Cichlidae (6%) and Gymnotiformes (3%). In addition to major differences in behavior and ecology, Amazonian fish vary extensively in form and size. The largest, the arapaima and piraiba can reach 3 m (9.8 ft) or more in length and up to 200 kg (440 lb) in weight, making them some of
11300-479: The plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself. In one study, the female Guianan cocks-of-the-rock displayed sexual selection based on sequential comparisons or threshold standards. The hens engaged in a "pool–comparison" tactic, meaning that females chose males of higher rank in courtship . Males of higher rank were those with more matings received from other females; the lower-ranking single males were ignored. The rankings were determined by where
11413-448: The rainforest and frequent rainstorms gives tropical frogs infinitely more freedom to move into the trees and escape the many predators of rainforest waters. The differences between temperate and tropical frogs extend beyond their habitat. About 2500 fish species are known from the Amazon basin and it is estimated that more than 1,000 additional undescribed species exist. This is more than any other river basin on Earth, and Amazonia
11526-583: The region are generally shallow and cannot be used for more than a few seasons without the addition of imported fertilizers and chemicals. "Over past 20 years (2021), the Brazilian Amazon emitted 13% more CO 2 than it absorbed". "Amazon biodiversity also plays a critical role as part of global systems, influencing the global carbon cycle and thus climate change , as well as hemispheric hydrological systems, serving as an important anchor for South American climate and rainfall. It also produces 20% oxygen of
11639-615: The regions, with transport ranging from balsa rafts and dugout canoes to hand built wooden river craft and modern steel hulled craft. Seasonal floods excavate and redistribute nutrient-rich silt onto beaches and islands, enabling dry-season riverside agriculture of rice, beans, and corn on the river's shoreline without the addition of fertilizer, with additional slash and burn agriculture on higher floodplains. Fishing provides additional food year-round, and free-range chickens need little or no food beyond what they can forage locally. Charcoal made largely from forest and shoreline deadfall
11752-401: The seeds below where they were nesting. Small snakes , lizards , insects and frogs are occasionally found in its diet. By selectively feeding on nearby fruit trees and then defecating or regurgitating the seeds within the leks, these birds can actively influence the regeneration and succession of the forest habitat where they breed. Guianan cocks-of-the-rock breed early in the year, and
11865-421: The subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. One of the earliest known South American civilizations was Caral–Supe , on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in
11978-411: The subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The Atlantic slave trade brought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502. The main destinations of this phase were
12091-476: The trees. The female lays one or two eggs in the nest of mud and plant material, which is attached by saliva to a vertical rock. The female takes care of the building and maintenance of the nest, the incubation of the eggs and the parenting. The male does not participate at all. Eggs typically incubate for 27–28 days. The ideal nesting sites for this species are usually located in a cave or vertical rock face with crevices that provide some shelter and protection from
12204-452: The true danger they represent often is greatly exaggerated, the Amazon basin is home to several feared fish species such as piranhas (including the famous red-bellied ), electric eel , river stingrays and candiru . Several cavefish species in the genus Phreatobius are found in the Amazon, as is the cave-dwelling Astroblepus pholeter in the far western part of the basin (Andean region). The Tocantins basin, arguably not part of
12317-568: The western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American. Guyana
12430-465: Was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery. The European Peninsular War (1807–14), a theater of the Napoleonic Wars , changed the political situation of
12543-614: Was a useful form of agriculture. The Mapuche in Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging the Arauco War for more than 300 years. In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas , by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all
12656-549: Was initially colonized by the Dutch before coming under British control , though there was a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars when it was occupied by the French . The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain. Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and then settled by the English in
12769-486: Was less likely to occur, due to an inverse relationship between the number and frequency of attacks and the size of leks. Thus, with a smaller frequency of attacks on the smaller group, the Guianan cock-of-the-rock males were less likely to flush or disperse completely as compared to a large group where a false alarm could trigger a complete flush 90% of the time. It was found that these birds have relatively ineffective methods of anti-predation and that social anti-predation and
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