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83-543: The Alternative Port Working Party (APWP) began as an offshoot of another community action group called the Cuttlefish Coast Coalition , which sought to preserve the marine environment around Point Lowly. Since its formation, the Alternative Port Working Party has focused their efforts on identifying alternative locations for a number of industrial proposals planned for what has been referred to by

166-472: A coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton , Ohio, owned by the Dayton Power & Light Co. This was justified by the high thermal conductivity and very low viscosity of hydrogen gas, thus lower drag than air. This is the most common coolant used for generators 60 MW and larger; smaller generators are usually air-cooled . The nickel–hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard

249-465: A gas of diatomic molecules with the formula H 2 , sometimes called dihydrogen , but more commonly called hydrogen gas , molecular hydrogen or simply hydrogen. It is colorless, odorless, non-toxic, and highly combustible . Constituting about 75% of all normal matter , hydrogen is the most abundant chemical element in the universe . Stars , including the Sun , mainly consist of hydrogen in

332-465: A nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids . Under the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory , acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton, H , cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its strong attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at

415-478: A plasma state , while on Earth, hydrogen is found in water , organic compounds , as dihydrogen , and in other molecular forms . The most common isotope of hydrogen (protium, H) consists of one proton , one electron , and no neutrons . In the early universe , the formation of hydrogen's protons occurred in the first second after the Big Bang ; neutral hydrogen atoms only formed about 370,000 years later during

498-490: A stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides other than group 1 and 2 metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group 2 hydrides is BeH 2 , which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride , the [AlH 4 ] anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III). Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements,

581-437: A fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactions: Many metals such as zirconium undergo a similar reaction with water leading to the production of hydrogen. François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine , an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented

664-448: A monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H 2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit

747-695: A more appropriate site and that a large scale reverse osmosis seawater desalination plant for the Olympic Dam mine could 'open the floodgates for the industrialization of Point Lowly.' The group is concerned that a loss in tourism visitation will adversely impact Whyalla's economy should industrialization plans proceed near Point Lowly, and that the area could be considered an emerging 'tourism hotspot'. The group has given public presentations, lobbied and written submissions to local and State government since at least 2009 and encouraged locals to respond formally to published Environmental Impact Statements. As of 2014,

830-545: A partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides . Hydrogen forms many compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons , and even more with heteroatoms that, due to their association with living things, are called organic compounds . The study of their properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is called biochemistry . By some definitions, "organic" compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain hydrogen, and because it

913-477: A partial positive charge. When bonded to a more electronegative element, particularly fluorine , oxygen , or nitrogen , hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with another electronegative element with a lone pair, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as metals and metalloids , where it takes on

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996-458: A potential location for the development of hydrogen export facilities to facilitate the expansion of the state's growing utility-scale renewable energy sector. Port Bonython was chosen as the site of a future mineral export precinct, facilitated by the Rann government . Concept plans included an iron ore export facility, a fuel distribution hub and a seawater desalination plant. Water produced by

1079-405: A proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom , together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H + 2 brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond , which followed shortly after

1162-526: A serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war. The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H 2

1245-440: A similar experiment with iron and sulfuric acid. However, in all likelihood, "sulfureous" should here be understood to mean "combustible". In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "inflammable air". He speculated that "inflammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance " phlogiston " and further finding in 1781 that

1328-498: A smaller portion comes from energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water . Its main industrial uses include fossil fuel processing, such as hydrocracking , and ammonia production , with emerging uses in fuel cells for electricity generation and as a heat source. When used in fuel cells, hydrogen's only emission at point of use is water vapor, though combustion can produce nitrogen oxides . Hydrogen's interaction with metals may cause embrittlement . Hydrogen gas

1411-467: A spark or flame, they do not react at room temperature in the absence of a catalyst. The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6  eV , equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, in which the electron "orbits" the proton, like how Earth orbits

1494-450: A species. To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the " hydronium ion" ( [H 3 O] ). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer to [H 9 O 4 ] . Other oxonium ions are found when water

1577-406: A spin singlet state having spin S = 0 {\displaystyle S=0} . The equilibrium ratio of ortho- to para-hydrogen depends on temperature. At room temperature or warmer, equilibrium hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form. The ortho form is an excited state , having higher energy than the para form by 1.455 kJ/mol, and it converts to

1660-438: A term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H ; and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion , suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1 and 2 salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing

1743-478: A while before caus'd to be purposely fil'd off from a piece of good steel. This metalline powder being moistn'd in the viol with a little of the menstruum, was afterwards drench'd with more; whereupon the mixture grew very hot, and belch'd up copious and stinking fumes; which whether they consisted altogether of the volatile sulfur of the Mars [iron], or of metalline steams participating of a sulfureous nature, and join'd with

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1826-579: Is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate most of the liquid if not converted first to parahydrogen during the cooling process. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as ferric oxide and activated carbon compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling to avoid this loss of liquid. While H 2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative , such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygen ; in these compounds hydrogen takes on

1909-540: Is standard gauge . The national standard gauge system extends from Port Augusta to Darwin , Perth , Adelaide and other regional towns. The separate and isolated BHP Whyalla Tramway narrow gauge railway connects Whyalla to Iron Knob and extends to Iron Duke and other iron ore mines of the Middleback Range . It is privately operated for the exclusive use of Arrium . Railways to Whyalla were originally built for BHP . A new rail link connecting Port Bonython to

1992-501: Is 2.4 kilometres long and is capable of berthing small Capesize ships with a maximum capacity of 110,000 tonnes. The wharf was established in 1982 and named after John Bonython , the founding chairman of Santos . The structure is leased to Santos by the Government of South Australia and is used for the export of hydrocarbon products. An oil spill at Port Bonython in 1992 resulted in loss of bird life and damage to mangrove habitats to

2075-464: Is detected in order to probe primordial hydrogen. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the universe up to a redshift of z  = 4. Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H 2 . Hydrogen gas is very rare in Earth's atmosphere (around 0.53 ppm on

2158-400: Is highly flammable: Enthalpy of combustion : −286 kJ/mol. Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74% and with chlorine at 5–95%. The hydrogen autoignition temperature , the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F). Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen mix are nearly invisible to

2241-453: Is in acidic solution with other solvents. Although exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H + 3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation. Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted H , H and H . Other, highly unstable nuclei ( H to H ) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. Unique among

2324-412: Is located on the western side of the narrow shipping channel and may be subjected to impacts from moving Capesize vessels with limited under-keel clearance . Special Purpose Areas are juxtaposed over sanctuary zones to allow for activity associated with significant economic development. Shipping movements within the marine park were predicted to increase from approximately 360 per year to over 1000 by

2407-484: Is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals . Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice . These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen compounds are often called hydrides ,

2490-532: Is still used, in preference to non-flammable but more expensive helium, as a lifting gas for weather balloons . Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey , and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford , Mark Oliphant , and Paul Harteck . Heavy water , which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932. The first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service using gaseous hydrogen as

2573-412: Is the carbon-hydrogen bond that gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry. Millions of hydrocarbons are known, and they are usually formed by complicated pathways that seldom involve elemental hydrogen. Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and

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2656-639: The Asia-Pacific region. A 2.4 km long wharf was constructed and purchased by the Government of South Australia for $ 48.2 million in 1983. First shipments from the facility were made that year. It was officially opened on 5 September 1984 by the South Australian Premier John Bannon . The jetty is licensed to Santos under the Stony Point (Liquids Project) Ratification Act, 1981 and

2739-581: The Australian giant cuttlefish during their annual inshore breeding aggregation. A coastal road to the north exists, but it is controlled by the Australian Army and is permanently closed to the public. In 2016 a partnership between the state government and Port Bonython Fuels enabled the construction of a new road connecting Port Bonython Road with the popular cuttlefish tourism site at Stony Point. The Whyalla railway line connecting Whyalla to Port Augusta

2822-538: The Cuttlefish Coast Coalition and the Alternative Port Working Party have opposed the further industrialization of the Port Bonython and Point Lowly area in public, in formal submissions to Government and in the media. Their position is that the social, recreational and environmental values of the area must be preserved for current and future generations. They have identified alternative locations for

2905-496: The Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible flames in the photographs were the result of carbon compounds in the airship skin burning. H 2 is unreactive compared to diatomic elements such as halogens or oxygen. The thermodynamic basis of this low reactivity is the very strong H–H bond, with a bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. The kinetic basis of

2988-570: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) allows any of D, T, H , and H to be used, though H and H are preferred. The exotic atom muonium (symbol Mu), composed of an anti muon and an electron , can also be considered a light radioisotope of hydrogen. Because muons decay with lifetime 2.2  µs , muonium is too unstable for observable chemistry. Nevertheless, muonium compounds are important test cases for quantum simulation , due to

3071-778: The South Australian Government with the contract awarded in 2008. An Environmental Impact Statement for the Port Bonython Bulk Commodities Export Facility was published by the Spencer Gulf Port Link consortium in 2013. Public submissions closed on 18 November 2013. The time period for consideration of the Federal environmental approval was extended at least four times, and was anticipated on or before 31 December 2014. As of August 2018 no decision regarding Federal environmental approval for

3154-566: The Upper Spencer Gulf Marine Park 's outer boundary. A sanctuary zone has been created for the protection of the Australian giant cuttlefish . It covers a section of inshore breeding habitat immediately to the west of the proposed Port Bonython Bulk Commodities Export Facility. This location is renown as one of South Australia's best scuba diving sites. An additional sanctuary zone exists at Fairway Bank, south of Port Bonython. It

3237-473: The recombination epoch as the universe cooled and plasma had cooled enough for electrons to remain bound to protons. Hydrogen, typically nonmetallic except under extreme pressure , readily forms covalent bonds with most nonmetals, contributing to the formation of compounds like water and various organic substances. Its role is crucial in acid-base reactions , which mainly involve proton exchange among soluble molecules. In ionic compounds , hydrogen can take

3320-431: The "planetary orbit" differs from electron motion. Molecular H 2 exists as two spin isomers , i.e. compounds that differ only in the spin states of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two nuclei are parallel, forming a spin triplet state having a total molecular spin S = 1 {\displaystyle S=1} ; in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form

3403-607: The APWP continues to convey its views in local and statewide media. Port Bonython Port Bonython is the location of a deepwater port , gas fractionation plant and diesel storage facility west of Point Lowly in the Upper Spencer Gulf region of South Australia . It lies 16 km east-northeast of Whyalla , South Australia and approximately 370 km north-west of the State's capital city, Adelaide . The existing wharf

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3486-510: The Government of South Australia as the Port Bonython Minerals Precinct . The APWP believes that a proposed iron ore export facility could be relocated 30 km south of Whyalla at Nonowie Station, and has been advocating for this since at least February 2009. The group also maintains that a diesel importation and distribution hub failed to consider implications for the marine environment and could be relocated closer to Whyalla at

3569-466: The Minister for Planning Paul Holloway in 2010. The project documentation is not publicly available. Port Bonython Fuels was sold by Senex Energy to Mitsubishi Corporation in two stages. Mitsubishi first purchased a 90% stake in 2012, then the remaining 10% in 2013. Port Bonython Fuels Ltd is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Mitsubishi Corporation. In 2014, it was announced that Port Bonython Fuels

3652-490: The State Government has an obligation to maintain the jetty for the life of the indenture. In 2010, Cabinet committed $ 29.9 million to its refurbishment. A major oil spill occurred at Port Bonython during the berthing of the tanker Era in 1992. Her hull was pierced by a tugboat and approximately 300 tonnes of heavy bunker fuel leaked into Spencer Gulf. The spill response used chemical dispersants including Corexit and

3735-476: The Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora . Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium because the atoms seldom collide and combine. They are the source of the 21-cm hydrogen line at 1420 MHz that

3818-454: The Sun and the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in case of stars more massive than the Sun . Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states, with properties quite distinct from those of molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from

3901-460: The Sun. However, the electron and proton are held together by electrostatic attraction, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity . Due to the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies. A more accurate description of

3984-641: The U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). The International Space Station , Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteries, which were finally replaced in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch and 13 years beyond their design life. Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of

4067-538: The Whyalla standard gauge line is a component of the Port Bonython Bulk Commodities Export Facility proposal. A dual gauge balloon loop was constructed at Whyalla to increase iron ore export capacity at the existing port there. Hydrogen Hydrogen is a chemical element ; it has symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest element and, at standard conditions , is

4150-430: The elements, distinct names are assigned to its isotopes in common use. During the early study of radioactivity, heavy radioisotopes were given their own names, but these are mostly no longer used. The symbols D and T (instead of H and H ) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the symbol P was already used for phosphorus and thus was not available for protium. In its nomenclatural guidelines,

4233-471: The existing Port Bonython wharf, where it receives imported liquid hydrocarbons. The facility includes 81ML of diesel storage (three 27ML tanks) and a two-bay gantry, each bay with three arms (2,400 Lpm per arm). Resource company BHP proposed to construct a reverse-osmosis seawater desalination plant at Port Bonython to provide water for the expansion of the Olympic Dam copper and uranium mine. The plant

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4316-495: The facility has been made. No final decision was ever published. The proposed bulk commodities export facility was intended to be open access and managed by consortium. The consortium included Flinders Port Holdings , Australian Rail Track Corporation , Leighton Contractors and Macquarie Capital . Prospective miners with iron ore deposits in the state's far north, including within the Woomera Protected Area were

4399-493: The first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard . German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins ; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900. Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without

4482-535: The form of either a negatively charged anion , where it is known as hydride , or as a positively charged cation , H . The cation, usually just a proton (symbol p ), exhibits specific behavior in aqueous solutions and in ionic compounds involves screening of its electric charge by surrounding polar molecules or anions. Hydrogen's unique position as the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be directly solved, has significantly contributed to

4565-535: The foundational principles of quantum mechanics through the exploration of its energetics and chemical bonding . Hydrogen gas was first produced artificially in the early 16th century by reacting acids with metals. Henry Cavendish , in 1766–81, identified hydrogen gas as a distinct substance and discovered its property of producing water when burned; hence its name means "water-former" in Greek. Most hydrogen production occurs through steam reforming of natural gas ;

4648-462: The gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier identified the element that came to be known as hydrogen when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned. Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in

4731-427: The high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted " H " without any implication that any single protons exist freely as

4814-444: The hydrogen atom comes from a quantum analysis that uses the Schrödinger equation , Dirac equation or Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complex formulas include the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization . In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum—illustrating how

4897-399: The hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823. Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask . He produced solid hydrogen the next year. The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provided the lift for

4980-400: The low reactivity is the nonpolar nature of H 2 and its weak polarizability. It spontaneously reacts with chlorine and fluorine to form hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride , respectively. The reactivity of H 2 is strongly affected by the presence of metal catalysts. Thus, while mixtures of H 2 with O 2 or air combust readily when heated to at least 500°C by

5063-402: The mass difference between the antimuon and the proton, and IUPAC nomenclature incorporates such hypothetical compounds as muonium chloride (MuCl) and sodium muonide (NaMu), analogous to hydrogen chloride and sodium hydride respectively. Table of thermal and physical properties of hydrogen (H 2 ) at atmospheric pressure: In 1671, Irish scientist Robert Boyle discovered and described

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5146-481: The mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy . Hydrogen is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H 2 are associated with star formation . Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction in case of stars with very low to approximately 1 mass of

5229-743: The most likely to utilize the facility, were it ever constructed. WPG Resources is one such company. BHP also expressed interest in considering Port Bonython for the potential future export of copper concentrates to China, were the Olympic Dam mine to expand to an open cut operation. All four mining companies that formed the Port Bonython Bulk Users Group either found alternative pathways for iron ore export or abandoned their iron ore prospects entirely. WPG Resources and IMX Resources successfully exported from other ports while Ironclad Mining and Centrex Metals did not proceed to mine development. An liquefied natural gas processing plant

5312-490: The naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine , compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster , which uses an ammonium perchlorate composite . The detection of a burning hydrogen leak, may require a flame detector ; such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames. The destruction of

5395-649: The number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, more than 100 binary borane hydrides are known, but only one binary aluminium hydride. Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist. In inorganic chemistry , hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex . This function is particularly common in group 13 elements , especially in boranes ( boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes . Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H , which contains no electrons and

5478-420: The para form over the course of several minutes when cooled to low temperature. The thermal properties of the forms differ because they differ in their allowed rotational quantum states , resulting in different thermal properties such as the heat capacity. The ortho-to-para ratio in H 2 is an important consideration in the liquefaction and storage of liquid hydrogen : the conversion from ortho to para

5561-595: The plant would have been the second largest in Australia after the Victorian Desalination Plant . After identifying shortfalls in bulk commodities export infrastructure, four emerging mining companies formed the Port Bonython Bulk Users Group in 2008. A competitive tendering process to plan, build and operate the common user Port Bonython Bulk Commodities Export Facility was facilitated by

5644-501: The proposed desalination plant would be piped overland, 300 km north to the Olympic Dam mine for the exclusive use of BHP . As of 2018, Port Bonython Fuels has been constructed and commissioned, the desalination plant has been abandoned and the iron ore export facility was abandoned without announcement. A fuel distribution hub and micro-refinery project known as Port Bonython Fuels was initially proposed by Scott's Transport and Stuart Petroleum in 2007. The two stage development

5727-477: The quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s. One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H 2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of

5810-502: The reaction between iron filings and dilute acids , which results in the production of hydrogen gas. Having provided a saline spirit [hydrochloric acid], which by an uncommon way of preparation was made exceeding sharp and piercing, we put into a vial, capable of containing three or four ounces of water, a convenient quantity of filings of steel, which were not such as are commonly sold in shops to Chymists and Apothecaries, (those being usually not free enough from rust) but such as I had

5893-412: The region's population of Giant Australian Cuttlefish was genetically distinct and that it was vulnerable to increased salinity and changes in pH, particularly during embryo development. Numerous people expressed concern about the potential impact of the plant on Spencer Gulf's salinity including prawn fishermen, tuna growers, scientists and environmentalists. A small scale pilot desalination plant

5976-422: The remaining slick resulted in loss of bird life and damage to mangrove habitats and tidal creeks. In May 2016, Port Bonython Fuels was commissioned, ending Santos's prior claim as the only established industrial presence in the area. Several other development proposals from other companies have been announced then subsequently abandoned. In 2020, Port Bonython was named by the Government of South Australia as

6059-506: The saline exhalations of the menstruum, is not necessary to be here discuss'd. But whencesoever this stinking smoak proceeded, so inflammable it was, that upon the approach of a lighted candle to it, it would readily enough take fire, and burn with a blewish and somewhat greenish flame at the mouth of the viol for a good while together; and that, though with little light, yet with more strength than one would easily suspect. The word "sulfureous" may be somewhat confusing, especially since Boyle did

6142-405: The same effect. Antihydrogen ( H ) is the antimatter counterpart to hydrogen. It consists of an antiproton with a positron . Antihydrogen is the only type of antimatter atom to have been produced as of 2015 . Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and >90% by number of atoms. Most of

6225-553: The same facilities which would retain employment and other economic benefits for Whyalla's citizens whilst greatly reducing the extent of community and environmental sacrifice. Port Bonython Road provides the only access to the Port Bonython area. It is currently a shared use public road which provides access to the Australian Army's Cultana Training Area , Point Lowly lighthouse, beaches, boat ramp and numerous coastal homes and camp sites. It also provides access for divers and tourists who visit in May through September to view or swim with

6308-579: The west and southwest of Port Pirie . A gas fractionation plant operated by Santos was established at Port Bonython in 1982. The plant's refinery and tank farm complex receive crude oil and gas from the Cooper Basin in outback South Australia for processing and distribution. Port Bonython is the terminus of the Moomba to Port Bonython Liquids Pipeline which is 659 km long. From Port Bonython, Santos freights hydrocarbon products by sea to customers across

6391-551: The year 2020, but this did not eventuate. Figures for shipping movement estimates did not include barge movements for transshipping activities. 32 barge movements are required to fill a single Panamax bulk carrier with iron ore. BHP also intends to transport heavy equipment by barge to a future landing facility north of Fitzgerald Bay, in the northern reaches of the Upper Spencer Gulf Marine Park. Community action groups from Whyalla including Save Point Lowly ,

6474-582: Was approved by both State and Federal Governments in October, 2011. The plant had an approved capacity of up to 280 megalitres of produced water per day, or 137 gigalitres per year. At full capacity, this would result in 370 megalitres of waste brine with elevated salinity returned to the sea off Point Lowly. During the preparation of the Olympic Dam Expansion Draft Environmental Impact Statement, scientists discovered that

6557-483: Was designed to provide a billion litres of diesel per year by road freight to mining companies around South Australia. The project's terrestrial footprint is comparable to Santos' facility. The project was deemed to be public infrastructure and awarded 'Crown-sponsored Status' by the South Australian Government . The development application was approved by the Development Assessment Commission and

6640-426: Was established at Port Bonython and operated from 2007 to 2010. The pilot plant was established and operated by Veolia Water Solutions and Technology and a monitoring station was operated by Water Data Services. The proposal to construct a desalination plant was ultimately abandoned after the company decided to expand the mine using existing methods, rather than reconfiguring the mine to an open cut. If constructed,

6723-532: Was expected to commence construction in 2015. Opposition to the development has called for the proposed facility's relocation 20 km west, adjacent to the Lincoln Highway . The facility was commissioned in May 2016 and is owned by IOR Terminals and operated by Coogee Chemicals. It is open twenty-four hours-a-day, seven days-a-week and services tanker trucks of various classification , the largest being A-Triple size. The facility has increased shipping traffic to

6806-458: Was proposed by Beach Energy and its Japanese partners Itochu in 2010, but was subsequently abandoned. In 2011, a plan to develop a Technical Ammonium Nitrate (TAN) plant was proposed by Deepak Fertilizers and was abandoned the following year owing partly to the location. The TAN plant proposal prompted accusations of State government deception, made by the community action group, Save Point Lowly . Waters adjacent to Port Bonython fall within

6889-521: Was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937. The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity . But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done and commercial hydrogen airship travel ceased . Hydrogen

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