Commander (commonly abbreviated as Cmdr. ) is a common naval officer rank as well as a job title in many armies . Commander is also used as a rank or title in other formal organizations, including several police forces. In several countries, this naval rank is termed as a frigate captain .
114-504: Alfredo Ignacio Astiz (born 8 November 1951) is a convicted war criminal and former Argentine military commander , intelligence officer, and naval commando who served in the Argentine Navy during the military dictatorship of Jorge Rafael Videla during the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional (1976–1983). He was known as El Ángel Rubio de la Muerte (the "Blond Angel of Death "), and had
228-650: A British Antarctic Survey party. The next day, 20 March, the local head of the British Antarctic Survey handed Astiz a note transcribed from a radio message from the Governor of the Falklands. The communication ordered Astiz to take down the flag of Argentina and leave. Astiz took down the flag but did not leave. Later that day, HMS Endurance , the Royal Navy 's ice patrol ship, was dispatched from Stanley on
342-470: A section (section commander), vehicle (vehicle commander) or gun (gun commander), to the subaltern or captain commanding a platoon (platoon commander), or to the brigadier commanding a brigade (brigade commander). Other officers commanding units are usually referred to as the officer commanding (OC), commanding officer (CO), general officer commanding (GOC), or general officer commanding-in-chief (GOC-C), depending on rank and position, although
456-563: A wreath . Within the Metropolitan Police Service, the tips of the tipstaves are blue and not red, unlike other forces. Until the abolition of the rank of deputy commander in 1968, however, a commander wore the same badge of rank as a deputy assistant commissioner. In Australia, commander is a rank used by the Victorian, Tasmanian, Western Australian, South Australian, and Australian Federal police forces. The insignia consists of
570-528: A " death flight ". Hagelin joined the ranks of the "disappeared" some time in 1977. There is no direct evidence that Astiz had any part in Hagelin's treatment after shooting and kidnapping Hagelin. There is no evidence of who killed her. Astiz was convicted of murdering Dagmar Hagelin, and committing other crimes, to a second lifetime sentence in 2017 after a five year trial, together with his former boss Jorge Acosta . Dagmar's father, Ragnar Hagelin, had passed away
684-692: A "good faith" effort with the prosecution, the trials were then transferred to a civilian court. After the creation of CONADEP, the commission asked APDH for all the reports of disappearances that they had gathered during the "Dirty War", and at the same time invited APDH member, Graciela Fernández Meijide, to be the head of the Secretaría de Denuncias (Department of Depositions). Meijide accepted and then asked human rights organizations to volunteer their activists. CONADEP then began collaborating with many other organizations. Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo) met with CONADEP in order to coordinate
798-634: A 1983 article, Meyer states that the United Kingdom's Government changed its position because it had already implied the Argentine detainees were prisoners of war by applying provisions of the Geneva Conventions. About three weeks after the Argentine prisoners were captured, the United Kingdom announced that it would repatriate all 151 soldiers and 39 civilians, five of whom were not Argentine citizens, that it held in detention on South Georgia. Because of
912-676: A French Assize Court for his role in the torture and disappearance of the two French nuns, Alice Domon and Léonie Duquet . French law allows trials, in absentia if necessary, of foreigners accused of breaking French laws in other jurisdictions if the crimes are committed against French nationals. For years, Astiz was protected by the Pardon Laws in 1986 and 1987 (the Ley de Punto Final and Ley de Obediencia Debida , respectively) which had shielded military and security officers from prosecution. He has several times been physically attacked by civilians;
1026-578: A Technical Commission on the Gathering of Information that was responsible for the gathering and systemizing of collected information on the disappeared, the people thought to be responsible and the clandestine detention centers which would then be sent back to CONADEP. In the summer of 1984, relatives of the disappeared and survivors collected at the Centro Cultural San Martín in Buenos Aires at
1140-609: A command or unit. Some large police departments and sheriff's offices in the US have a commander rank. Most commonly, this is the next rank above captain. Examples of this include the Chicago Police Department , Los Angeles Police Department , San Francisco Police Department , Portland Police Bureau and Rochester Police Department . In others, such as the Phoenix Police Department and Saint Paul Police Department ,
1254-555: A commander rank is the next rank above lieutenant, and is equivalent to captain. In the Northport, Florida's police department, however, commanders are below captains. A commander in the LAPD is equivalent to an inspector in other large US departments (such as the NYPD ); the LAPD rank was originally called inspector as well, but was changed in 1974 to commander. The Metropolitan Police Department of
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#17328557256891368-430: A copy of the city morgue ledger that listed around 700 people whose bodies passed through the morgue during the years following the military coup in 1976. The ledger contained descriptions of the conditions of the body. Ernesto Sabato, the president of CONADEP, was quoted as having said that "the tortures and torments and bullets holes from the firing squad" were all described in the ledger. CONADEP has also had success in
1482-436: A crown over three bath stars in a triangular formation, equivalent to a brigadier in the army. In all four forces, it is junior to the rank of assistant commissioner , and senior to the rank of chief superintendent , with the exception of Western Australia and Victoria where it is senior to the rank of superintendent . In New South Wales the position of commander is instated to officers (usually superintendents) in charge of
1596-695: A detailed report of the fruitless interviews to the Swedish and French Governments. Astiz was repatriated back to Argentina on 10 June 1982, just before the start of the battle for Port Stanley and the Argentine surrender on the Falkland Islands on 14 June 1982. The United Kingdom Government had chosen to read the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, relating to the treatment of prisoners of war, as protecting Astiz from criminal prosecution in its jurisdiction and from extradition from it. Meyer argues that this
1710-550: A foreign tort whenever the defendant is in the UK, if the alleged act would have been actionable as a tort if committed in Britain, and it was an offence under the laws of the foreign country. Torture and kidnap by government officials is actionable as a tort if committed in England. Proving that it was an offence under the laws of Argentina would have been more difficult. English courts assume that
1824-412: A housewife from whom Alfredo inherited his blonde phenotype and blue eyes. From his father he inherited his military vocation and from both parents the Argentine nationalist formation that accompanies him to this day as a prisoner, serving a life sentence that has lasted a quarter of a century, the same time he served as a naval officer. Astiz was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in 2004. In October 2013
1938-565: A lieutenant but too small to warrant the assignment of a post-captain and (before about 1770) a sailing master ; the commanding officer served as his own master. In practice, these were usually unrated sloops-of-war of no more than 20 guns. The Royal Navy shortened "master and commander" to "commander" in 1794; however, the term "master and commander" remained (unofficially) in common parlance for several years. The equivalent American rank master commandant remained in use until changed to commander in 1838. A corresponding rank in some navies
2052-704: A mass grave in General Lavalle Cemetery. Forensic DNA testing by the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team identified the remains of Duquet, Azucena Villaflor de Vicenti , and two other founders of the Mothers of the Plaza in August 2005. Domon's remains have not been found. Astiz commanded a special team of fifteen Tactical Divers Group frogmen , dubbed los lagartos (the lizards), which carried out
2166-614: A reputation as a torturer. He was discharged from the military in 1998 after defending his actions in a press interview. He was a member of GT 3.3.2 (Task Group 3.3.2) based in the Naval Mechanics School ( ESMA ) in Buenos Aires during the Dirty War of 1976–1983. The school was adapted as a secret detention and torture center for political prisoners. As many as 5,000 political prisoners were interrogated, tortured and murdered in
2280-631: A search for the still missing children, Familiares de Detenidos y Desaparecidos por Razones Políticas [ es ] (Relatives of the Detained-Disappeared) and the Liga Argentina por los Derechos del Hombre [ es ] (Argentine Human Rights League, or LADH) also asked their members to give testimonies to CONADEP. Movimiento Ecuménico por los Derechos Humanos [ es ] (Ecumenical Movement for Human Rights, or MEDH) provided CONADEP with personnel. CONADEP then formed
2394-480: A staff. Since the British Royal Air Force 's mid-rank officers' ranks are modelled on those of the Royal Navy , the term wing commander is used as a rank, and this is the equivalent of a lieutenant colonel in the army or a commander in the navy. The rank of wing commander is above that of squadron leader and below that of group captain . In the former Royal Naval Air Service , which was merged with
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#17328557256892508-407: A title in certain circumstances, such as the commander of a squad of detectives, who would usually be of the rank of lieutenant, and in some police or sheriff's departments where commanders are ranks, officers or deputies of separate ranks are also referred to as commander by title. The Montreal police force, Service de police de la Ville de Montréal , uses the rank of commander (Commandant) . In
2622-640: A well-known assault took place in Bariloche in the mid-1990s. In 1998 he told the Argentine magazine Trespuntos in an interview that he was "the best-trained man in Argentina to kill journalists and politicians". He also reportedly said "I'm not sorry for anything", and defended the actions of the military dictatorship. He was discharged from the military for his comments. Astiz was arrested by Argentine police in July 2001. The Pardon Laws did not cover child abduction . Italy
2736-532: Is frigate captain . In the 20th and 21st centuries, the rank has been assigned the NATO rank code of OF-4. Various functions of commanding officers were also styled commander . In the navy of the Dutch Republic , anyone who commanded a ship or a fleet without having an appropriate rank to do so could be called a Commandeur . This included ad hoc fleet commanders and acting captains ( Luitenant-Commandeur ). In
2850-408: Is also a generic term for an officer commanding any armed forces unit, for example " platoon commander ", " brigade commander" and " squadron commander". In the police, terms such as " borough commander" and " incident commander " are used. Commander is a rank used in navies , but is very rarely used as a rank in armies . In most armies, the term "commander" is used as a job title. For example, in
2964-484: Is designated as mission commander. The commander is the captain of the ship, and makes all real-time critical decisions on behalf of the crew and in coordination with the Mission Control Center (MCC). The title of aircraft commander is used in civil aviation to refer to the pilot in command (commonly referred to as "captain", which is technically an airline rank and not related to the commander's role on board
3078-464: Is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the United States Army , United States Air Force , United States Marine Corps , and United States Space Force . Notably, commander is the first rank at which the holder wears an embellished cap, whereas officers of the other military services are entitled to embellishment of similar headgear at O-4 rank. Promotion to commander in the U.S. Navy
3192-688: Is governed by United States Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA) of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA). DOPMA/ROPMA guidelines suggest that 70% of lieutenant commanders should be promoted to commander after serving a minimum of three years at their present rank and after attaining 15 to 17 years of cumulative commissioned service, although this percentage may vary and be appreciably less for certain officer designators (i.e., primary "specialties") depending on defense budgets, force structure, and
3306-465: Is immediately above "commander-captain" ( Norwegian : Kommandørkaptein , Swedish : Kommendörkapten , Danish : Kommandørkaptajn ), which is equivalent to the Anglo-American naval rank of commander. In Denmark, the rank of commander exists as kommandørkaptajn (commander captain or commanding captain), which is senior to orlogskaptajn (captain) and kommandør (commander), which
3420-487: Is out of the question. We must not give in to public opinion. We must appear strong." His resistance was believed to be related to the severity of the injuries she suffered in the shooting. Hagelin was said to be paralyzed and to have lost cognitive abilities. Inés Carazzo , a detainee enslaved and regularly raped by Captain Antonio Pernias , another GT332 officer, claims that Acosta ordered that Hagelin be put to death in
3534-531: Is senior to kommandørkaptajn . Kommandørkaptajn is officially translated into English as "Commander, Senior Grade", while orlogskaptajn is officially translated as '"Commander." A commander in the Royal Navy is above the rank of lieutenant commander , below the rank of captain , and is equivalent in rank to a lieutenant colonel in the army. A commander may command a frigate , destroyer , submarine , aviation squadron or shore installation, or may serve on
Alfredo Astiz - Misplaced Pages Continue
3648-637: Is the Dutch equivalent of the British air commodore . The rank of commander in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) is identical in description to that of a commander in the British Royal Navy . RAN chaplains who are in divisions 1, 2 or 3 (of five divisions) have the equivalent rank standing of commanders. This means that to officers and NCOs below the rank of commander, lieutenant colonel, or wing commander,
3762-468: Is typically a lieutenant or captain , a squadron commander is typically a major or lieutenant colonel , a group commander is typically a colonel , a wing commander is typically a senior colonel or a brigadier general , a numbered air force commander is a major general or lieutenant general , and the commander of a major command is a general . In the United States Space Force ,
3876-516: The ESMA secret detention and torture center, and alleged that Astiz was in charge of her interrogation. She was never again seen alive. According to the Argentine Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, tasked with following up Swedish complaints at the time of Hagelin's shooting and abduction, Lieutenant Commander Jorge Eduardo Acosta , commander of GT3.3.2 , said that "setting her [Hagelin] free
3990-524: The Falklands to Grytviken , the main British Antarctic Survey base on South Georgia, with 22 Royal Marines with orders to evict him. They arrived on 23 March, a week before a number of Argentine Marines landed near Grytviken on 2 April. More Argentine marines arrived over the following days, and there was an armed clash at Grytviken . After damaging an Argentine frigate and shooting down an Aerospatiale Puma helicopter, inflicting casualties in both cases,
4104-678: The GT 3.3.2 (Task Force 3.3.2) was based in the Naval Mechanics School ( ESMA ) in Buenos Aires during the Dirty War. About 5,000 political prisoners were interrogated, tortured , and murdered in the ESMA, or elsewhere by its personnel, during those years. GT332 was involved in some of the 8,961 deaths and other crimes documented by the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons ( CONADEP ) after
4218-552: The Incident Command System the incident commander is in charge of the response to an emergency. The title may pass from person to person as the incident develops. The title of commander is used in chivalric orders such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta for a member senior to a knight . The title of knight commander is often used to denote an even higher rank. These conventions are also used by most of
4332-639: The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and flown home, the Swedish Government asked the British Government to question Astiz. The French Government also made a request that Astiz be held while they sought legal pursuance for the "disappearances" of the nuns. Both countries stated that they had eyewitnesses for the "disappearances." The United Kingdom's Government's initial response
4446-568: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo , and two French nationals, Léonie Duquet and Alice Domon , who were Catholic nuns. None of the twelve were seen alive again outside detention and all were believed killed, rumored to be among the bodies washed up on beaches south of Buenos Aires in late 1977. At the beginning of the 1982 Falklands War , Astiz surrendered with his team to British forces. Sweden and France wanted to question him about "disappearances" of their nationals at his hands but, considering issues of
4560-620: The Royal Flying Corps to form the Royal Air Force in 1918, the pilots held appointments as well as their normal ranks in the Royal Navy, and they wore insignia appropriate to the appointment instead of the rank. A flight commander wore a star above a lieutenant's two rank stripes, squadron commander wore two stars above two rank stripes (less than eight years' seniority) or two-and-a-half rank stripes (over eight years seniority), and wing commander wore three rank stripes. The rank stripes had
4674-583: The Spanish Army , the Spanish Air Force and the marine infantry , the term commander is the literal translation of comandante , the Spanish equivalent of a Commonwealth major . The Guardia Civil shares the army ranks, and the officer commanding a house-garrison (usually an NCO or a lieutenant, depending on the size) is addressed as the comandante de puesto (post commander). In the United States Army ,
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4788-470: The US Army , an officer with the rank of captain ( NATO rank code OF-2 ) may hold the title of " company commander ", whereas an officer with the rank of lieutenant colonel ( NATO rank code OF-4 ) typically holds the title of " battalion commander". The title, originally "master and commander", originated in the 18th century to describe naval officers who commanded ships of war too large to be commanded by
4902-470: The United States Air Force , the term "commander" (abbreviated "CC" in office symbols, i.e. "OG/CC" for "operations group commander") is applied officially to the commanding officer of an Air Force unit; hence, there are flight commanders, squadron commanders, group commanders, wing commanders, numbered air force commanders, and commanders of major commands . In rank, a flight commander
5016-460: The "National Pacification Act" that granted impunity to the state by saying that all the action that was a result of the "antisubversive war" was then "extinguished". This act prompted human rights organizations to demand that a commission would be formed by the government with the task of investigating state "terrorism". The demands also included that the commission would include members from the House and
5130-577: The British Venerable Order of Saint John , a commander ranks below a knight. CONADEP National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (Spanish: Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas , CONADEP) was an Argentine organization created by President Raúl Alfonsín on 15 December 1983, shortly after his inauguration, to investigate the fate of the desaparecidos (victims of forced disappearance ) and other human rights violations (see: Dirty War ) performed during
5244-543: The British delegation, having also booby trapped nearby buildings. “The white flag obviously meant nothing to him” said British naval Captain Nick Barker who took Astiz’s surrender. Soon after the British recapture of South Georgia , Nicanor Costa Méndez , the Argentine Foreign Minister, said that Argentina was technically in a state of war with the UK. At about the same time an Argentine prisoner (Félix Artuso)
5358-506: The Commission. CONADEP was created on December 15, 1983 by a presidential decree and was to report to both the executive branch and the legislators from both chambers. It was allotted 6 months time to collect reports about the disappearances, look to see if they could discover what happened to the "disappeared", find abducted children, find evidence of attempts to conceal crimes and destroy evidence, after which they would refer this information to
5472-547: The Congress and be advised by the human rights community. CONADEP was created by Raúl Alfonsín who was the candidate for the Unión Cívica Radical ( Radical Civic Union ) party and took office on December 10, 1983. He emphasized that to prosecute the guilty parties responsible for the disappearances that three categories of people would have to be distinguished: those who planned and issued the orders, those who acted beyond
5586-597: The Dirty War. In 1990, a French court convicted Astiz in absentia for the kidnapping of Duquet and Domon, and sentenced him to life imprisonment. After the Argentine Supreme Court 's 2005 ruling that the Pardon Laws ( Ley de Obediencia Debida and Ley de Punto Final ) were unconstitutional, the government re-opened prosecution of war crimes cases. That year Astiz was detained on charges of kidnapping and torture. A mass grave with several unidentified bodies
5700-558: The District of Columbia also uses the rank of commander, which is a grade above inspector and two grades above captain. In the Montgomery County, MD police department a commander is a captain assigned to command a police district. The insignia worn is commonly every insignia between major and major general, depending on the police or sheriff's department. Albuquerque Police Department commanders are captain equivalents, however, with
5814-467: The ESMA during those years. GT 3.3.2 was involved in some of the 8,961 deaths and other crimes documented by a national commission after the restoration of democratic government in Argentina in 1983. Astiz, a specialist in the infiltration of human rights organizations, was implicated in the December 1977 kidnapping of twelve human rights activists, including Azucena Villaflor and two other founders of
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#17328557256895928-621: The French School ( Les escadrons de la mort – l'école française ), which claims this, Mendía asked the Argentine Court to summon to court the former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing , the former French prime minister Pierre Messmer , the former French ambassador to Buenos Aires Françoise de la Gosse , and all those in office in the French embassy in Buenos Aires between 1976 and 1983. Besides this "French connection", Mendía has also blamed
6042-515: The French and Swedish Governments. Soon after, the Argentine government made veiled threats against the welfare of three British journalists they had under arrest as spies at that time in Argentina, and linked their release to that of Astiz. Astiz was questioned twice in June 1982 by a Detective Chief Superintendent of the Sussex Constabulary . Both times, Astiz remained silent. The United Kingdom gave
6156-651: The French government of Charles de Gaulle , and having escaped to Argentina after the March 1962 Evian Accords , which ended the 1954–62 Algerian War . It has long been alleged that France arranged to have its intelligence agents train their Argentine (and other Latin American) counterparts in the counter-insurgency techniques they used in the Algerian War, which included interrogation under torture. Referring to Marie Monique Robin 's 2003 film documentary titled The Death Squads –
6270-427: The French. Daleo points out that claiming to be obeying Isabel Perón's anti-subversion decrees is grotesque, as those who murdered in the name of the decrees were the ones who had deposed her. Born on November 8, 1951, into a traditional Argentine family of Mar del Plata origin, upper-middle class and Spanish Basque descent, his parents were Bernardo Astiz, a vice admiral of the Argentine Navy , and María Elena Vázquez,
6384-461: The Geneva Conventions, the United Kingdom had him questioned by a British policeman. Astiz refused to answer any questions. The UK did not think it had grounds to hold or prosecute him, as he was suspected of crimes committed in Argentina that were not then defined as against international law , and repatriated him. In 1986 and 1987, Argentina passed the Pardon Laws, providing a kind of amnesty to military and security officers for crimes committed during
6498-685: The Kirchner administration. The prologue was restored to the original form in 2016, once the Kirchners ended their term of office. In February 1984, CONADEP found a mass grave in San Vincent Cemetery in Córdoba, Argentina, that at the time of discovery, was the largest mass grave discovered in Argentina since human rights organizations began to oppose the secret burial of victims during the military repression in Argentina during 1982. The Commission procured
6612-469: The La Asamblea Permanente por los Derechos Humanos ( Permanent Assembly for Human Rights , APDH) and thousands of complaints were submitted to the Organization of American States , Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), the International Committee of the Red Cross , the UN Human Rights Division, Amnesty International and organizations with various religious affiliations. These reports promoted visits from both Amnesty International and IACHR, but
6726-406: The Royal Marines surrendered to superior force. The Royal Marines were repatriated to the United Kingdom and later took part in the recapture of the Falkland Islands. The British Government reacted by sending in more forces to South Georgia, the Argentine garrison surrendering on 23 April 1982. Astiz insisted on signing a surrender document for himself and his small band although they were covered by
6840-455: The Supreme Court ratified decisions of lower courts denying him the right to treatment in a military hospital, under a Defence Ministry resolution banning use of the facilities by personnel who had criminal convictions. Astiz said that the Ministry was trying to kill him and severely harm his health by denying him access to Pedro Mallo Naval Hospital, the only medical facility able to supply the care he needed. Commander (naval) Commander
6954-511: The UK was also not possible because he was not accused of any crimes against British subjects, their possessions or the British State. Meyer argues that victims of Astiz, or their representatives, might have been successful in securing damages from him if they had brought a civil action while he was in the UK. As with criminal prosecution, nothing in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 remove the civil liability of prisoners of war for actions committed prior to capture. A British court has jurisdiction over
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#17328557256897068-448: The aircraft). Within the British police , Commander is a chief officer rank in the two police forces responsible for law enforcement within London , the Metropolitan Police and City of London Police . In both forces, the rank is senior to chief superintendent ; in the Metropolitan Police it is junior to deputy assistant commissioner and in the City of London Police it is junior to assistant commissioner . In forces outside London,
7182-551: The authorised actions of officials of a foreign government within its sovereign territory are not actionable within their jurisdiction unless those actions are outside the scope of the powers of the government. Since torture is expressly forbidden in the Argentine constitution, Astiz could have been prosecuted for acting outside his powers as an agent of the Argentine government in torturing Domon and Duquet. Although there were witnesses prepared to testify that they had seen Astiz torture Alice Domon and Léonie Duquet, no prosecution of Astiz
7296-413: The brass version of the captain's insignia. In some other police or sheriff's departments where the captains have brass insignias instead of silver, such as Florida's Lee County Sheriff's Department, commanders are above captains, and below majors, with the insignia being brass captain's bars with wreathes around. Northport's police commanders have the insignia of second lieutenants. Commander is also used as
7410-469: The chaplain is a superior. To those officers ranked higher than commander, the chaplain is subordinate. Although this equivalency exists, RAN chaplains who are in divisions 1, 2 or 3 do not actually wear the rank of commander, and they hold no command privilege. Commander is a naval rank in Scandinavia ( Kommandør in Danish and Norwegian, Kommendör in Swedish) equivalent to the Anglo-American naval rank of captain. The Scandinavian rank of commander
7524-475: The continental orders of chivalry. The United Kingdom uses different classifications. In most of the British orders of knighthood, the grade of knight (or dame) commander is the lowest grade of knighthood, but is above the grade of companion (which does not carry a knighthood). In the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of the British Empire , the grade of commander is senior to the grade of lieutenant or officer, but junior to that of knight or dame commander. In
7638-468: The country and this was approved. The Nunca Más ("Never Again") report was the main report created by CONADEP. Within its 50,000 pages of depositions from the survivors of the disappearances, there contains detailed accounts of the treatment by the Argentine armed forces towards the captives, or the "disappeared", of the "Dirty War". The report contains descriptions of individual cases of people being tortured or killed. The reports explains how CONADEP
7752-409: The court and issue a final report. Although the decree was passed, only three Radical Party Congressmen and only one human rights group, APDH, participated in CONADEP because human rights groups did not think that CONADEP would be successful. They felt that only a bicameral commission had the power of coercion necessary to subpoena the military and political offenders. After the military failed to make
7866-403: The dictatorship succeeded in denying the charges until the Falklands War in June 1982 and Argentina's defeat. Following this defeat, widespread coverage of the charges against the Argentine dictatorship spread through the press causing civil society organizations to demand that the parties responsible for the disappearances be brought forth and charged. A popular slogan used by these organizations
7980-472: The dictatorship. Along with Luis María Mendía , former chief of naval operations in 1976–77, Astiz testified in January 2007 before Argentine judges that a French intelligence agent, Bertrand de Perseval, had participated in the abduction of the two French nuns. Perseval, who lives today in Thailand, denied any links with the abduction. He has acknowledged being a former member of the Organisation armée secrète (OAS), an underground group which fought to subvert
8094-491: The disappearances and used "Centros Clandestinos de Detención" ( Clandestine Detention Centers ) to place the "disappeared". They were similar to the prisons of Argentina in regards to condition and structure but the detention centers could deny if a captive was being retained there. This gave the captors more freedom for torture or to kill the captives. Most disappeared people were eventually murdered and their bodies were either buried in unmarked graves, incinerated or disposed into
8208-521: The first act of aggression in what developed into the Falklands War . On 19 March 1982 they landed on South Georgia , under the guise of workers of the Argentine scrap metal dealer Constantino Davidoff. Officially they were to scrap three derelict whaling stations at Leith Harbour which had been purchased by their employer in 1979. They dressed up in uniform and raised the Argentine flag in full view of
8322-633: The fleet of the Admiralty of Zeeland however, commandeur was a formal rank, the equivalent of Schout-bij-nacht (rear-admiral) in the other Dutch admiralties. The Dutch use of the title as a rank lives on in the Royal Netherlands Navy , as the equivalent of commodore . In the Royal Netherlands Air Force , however, this rank is known by the English spelling of commodore which
8436-557: The forced disappearance of 8,961 persons from 1976 to 1983, although it noted that the actual number could be higher (estimates by human rights organizations usually place it at 30,000 persons). The report also stated that about 600 people were "disappeared" and 458 were assassinated (by death squads such as the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance ) during the Peronist governments from 1973 to 1976. Military intervention in
8550-404: The former president Isabel Perón and the former ministers Carlos Ruckauf and Antonio Cafiero , who had signed anti-subversion decrees before Videla's 1976 coup d'état . According to the ESMA survivor Graciela Daleo, this is another tactic to absolve the perpetrators of culpability, as did the 1987 Obediencia Debida Act, by trying to shift it to the predecessors of the military government, and
8664-429: The government re-opened prosecution of war crimes committed during the military dictatorship. In 2005, Astiz was detained on charges of kidnapping and torture, centered on the 12 victims of December 1977. Astiz and 17 other defendants associated with the operations at ESMA were "charged with various cases of kidnapping, torture, and murder relating to 86 victims". Following a 22-month trial, on 27 October 2011, Alfredo Astiz
8778-418: The harshest punishments. Alfonsín also wanted to integrate the military into the democratic party to prevent further military coups so he wanted to be slightly more conciliatory. Ernesto Sábato , Eduardo Rabossi, Gregorio Klimovsky , Hilario Fernández Long, Marshall Meyer , Ricardo Colombres, Monsignor Jaime de Nevares, Magdalena Ruiz Guiñazú , René Favaloro , and Carlos Gattinoni were all invited to join
8892-601: The location of the CONADEP headquarters in order to give their testimonies. During the collection of the testimonies, which would soon be concentrated and organized into the Nunca Más report, CONADEP decided the most effective way to prosecute the ones thought to be responsible, would be to identify the people they though were guilty and have them explain the events in court. CONADEP asked the President to prohibit those accused of leaving
9006-406: The military courts would refuse to impose any legal sanctions on the prosecuted and believed that the only way to see justice was to have a "bicameral commission". This way, the commission could manage an inquiry and then deliver a sentence and be able to subpoena testimony. Alfonsín denied the idea of a "bicameral commission" because of concern that legislators would compete among themselves to give
9120-495: The military dictatorship known as the National Reorganization Process between 1976 and 1983. The research of the investigation commission was documented in the Nunca Más (Never Again) report, which was a complete summary published as an official report in Spanish, and delivered to Alfonsín on 20 September 1984, which opened the doors to the trial of the military juntas of the dictatorship . CONADEP recorded
9234-529: The needs of the service. For instance, as in various small colonial settlements (such as various Caribbean islands) commanding the garrison was the crux of the top job, the military title Commandeur could be used instead of a civilian gubernatorial style, not unlike the Portuguese captain-major . In the British Army , the term "commander" is officially applied to the non-commissioned officer in charge of
9348-444: The ocean, intended never to be discovered. In March 1978 Agence France-Presse reported that the bodies were believed to be the two nuns and several members of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo , but this was not confirmed by the government. These and other bodies washed ashore were buried in mass graves at General Lavalle Cemetery, about 400 kilometers south of Buenos Aires. In July 2005 several bodies of unidentified women were found in
9462-461: The orders and those who carried out the orders strictly to the letter. Alfonsín proposed to take away the "self-amnesty" law that had been implemented by the military regime and ordered for the prosecution of seven guerilla leaders and the first three military juntas of the dictatorship. But, Alfonsín wanted to hold the trials in military court, with the possibility of an appeal in a civilian court. Human rights groups disagreed with this and though that
9576-411: The political sphere was common in Argentina since the 1930s. Torture and violence were used as mechanisms to control political conflicts or to deter the actions of opposition. But, the implementation of forced disappearances began to be prevalent following the 1976 Argentine coup d'état , displaying a determination to eliminate opposition with a more hidden method. The dictators denied any involvement in
9690-487: The prosecution or extradition of Astiz. However, the extradition treaties between Argentina and the UK, and Sweden and France, referred only to crimes committed within the territory of the requesting state and crimes against international law , while Astiz was accused of crimes committed in Argentina against their nationals which were not, at the time, crimes under international law. Consequently, he could not be handed over to another country. Criminal prosecution of Astiz within
9804-507: The publicity related to the surrender of Astiz, he came to the attention of the Swedish and French governments, which has been seeking justice for their citizens from Argentina, their embassies in London informing the Government of the United Kingdom that Astiz was accused of criminal acts against their nationals. As the Argentine prisoners were being shipped to Ascension Island to be handed over to
9918-441: The rank equates to assistant chief constable which bears the same insignia. The Metropolitan Police introduced the rank in 1946, after the rank of deputy assistant commissioner was split in two, with senior DACs keeping that rank and title and junior DACs being regraded as commanders. The Metropolitan Police also used the rank of deputy commander , ranking just below that of commander, between 1946 and 1968. Officers in charge of
10032-457: The rank of commander due to the size, complexity, and high-profile nature of the borough. The Metropolitan Police Service announced that by summer 2018 the rank would be phased out, along with that of chief inspector . However, in August 2017 it was announced that the new Commissioner Cressida Dick had cancelled the plan to phase them out. The rank badge worn by a commander or an assistant chief constable consists of crossed tipstaves within
10146-423: The restoration of democratic government in Argentina in 1983. During the Dirty War, Astiz specialized as an intelligence officer with GT 3.3.2 in infiltrating human rights groups in Argentina, particularly those active in Buenos Aires. He used the false name of "Gustavo Niño." He stayed with a group long enough to identify key members and then organized their abductions by his military forces. Prisoners were taken to
10260-409: The safety of British prisoners held by Argentina. Within a few days of being taken prisoner he had assaulted a guard and later fashioned a "primitive dagger" from a bed spring. The Secretary of State for Defence , John Nott , felt that the only course of action was to "get him off our hands as soon as possible". On 16 March 1990 Astiz was convicted and sentenced in absentia to life imprisonment by
10374-412: The sea. These hidden methods kept the Argentine government from being susceptible to international scrutiny and allowed the murder and torture of anyone without someone having to be held accountable to explain for the actions. Relatives of the "disappeared" for many years following the abductions demanded solely for truth about the fate of the "disappeared". Over 5,000 reports were filed from Argentina to
10488-629: The secret detention camp at ESMA and interrogated under torture for information about other members and activities. Most detainees were murdered by the military or death squads. Astiz was believed to have kidnapped and tortured hundreds of people during 1976 and 1977. Among these were several nationals of other countries, whose cases received international attention as their governments tried to find them and to prosecute suspects. In 1976 and 1977, Astiz' team kidnapped and "disappeared" three Italian nationals: Angela Maria Aieta in 1976, and Giovanni Pegoraro and his pregnant daughter Susana Pegoraro in 1977. Susana
10602-417: The social and class backgrounds of the "disappeared", giving statistics about the people that were kidnapped. For example, the report concluded that about 30% of the "disappeared" were women and that no less than 200 children under 15 were kidnapped. The Nunca Más report is a bestseller in Argentina and has been constantly in print since 1984. Part of the prologue by Ernesto Sábato was refactored in 2006 by
10716-450: The surrender of his commanding officer. As a result, Astiz was mistakenly publicized as the commander of the garrison on South Georgia. Astiz rigged the island football pitch with explosives, and planned to detonate them killing the British officers receiving his surrender. At the last minute the wires leading to the explosives were spotted and the surrender venue was changed to aboard HMS Plymouth, where Astiz freely admitted plotting to kill
10830-468: The term "commander" is applied officially to the commanding officer of a Space Force unit; hence, there are squadron commanders, delta commanders, and commanders of field commands . In rank, a squadron commander is a lieutenant colonel , a delta commander is a colonel , and the commander of a field command is a major general or lieutenant general . In NASA spacecraft missions since the beginning of Project Gemini , one crew member on each spacecraft
10944-410: The term "commander" is officially applied to the commanding officer of army units; hence, there are company commanders , battalion commanders , brigade commanders , and so forth. At the highest levels of U.S. military command structure, "commander" also refers to what used to be called commander-in-chief , or CINC, until October 24, 2002, although the term CINC is still used in casual speech. In
11058-537: The term "commander" may be applied to them informally. In the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry commander is a rank equivalent to major . Commandeur as title of colonial office was the case on the island of Tobago in the Dutch colony of Nieuw Walcheren . The usage is similar/identical to the British Army , with the term "commander" having been applied to the colonel who was Commander, 2 Land Force Group, Linton Camp, and now to Commander, 1 Brigade . In
11172-469: The time of Astiz's arrest that the alleged daughter was living in the port city of Mar del Plata . Astiz was not extradited. In 2005 the Argentine Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the amnesty laws introduced during the transition to democracy ( Ley de Punto Final , 1986 and Ley de Obediencia Debida , 1987). Since the identification of Duquet's body, France has been seeking extradition of Astiz on charges of murdering Duquet. After this ruling,
11286-484: The twelve geographical Basic Command Units are referred to as "BCU commander". However, the officers do not hold the rank of commander but instead hold the rank of chief superintendent. Prior to organisational change merging boroughs in to BCUs, officers in charge of policing each of the London's boroughs were given the title "borough commander". A previous exception to this was the borough commander of Westminster , who held
11400-502: The usual Royal Navy curl, and they were surmounted by an eagle. In the United States Navy , United States Coast Guard , United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps , and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps , commander (abbreviated "CDR") is a senior-grade officer rank, with the pay grade of O-5. Commander ranks above lieutenant commander (O-4) and below captain . (O-6). Commander
11514-701: The year before the conviction. In December 1977 Astiz organized the kidnapping of about a dozen people associated with the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo , including the founders Azucena Villaflor de Vicenti and two others. The non-violent group of mothers organized to learn the fates of their missing children and protested against the thousands of "disappeared." He also kidnapped two French nationals who were Catholic nuns, Léonie Duquet and Alice Domon . They had previously been caretakers for Jorge Videla's disabled son Alejandro. None were seen alive again after having been tortured at ESMA and "transferred" to be killed. Astiz
11628-519: Was "juicio y castigo a los culpables" (trial and punishment for the perpetrators). In April 1983, the dictatorship published the "Final Document of the Military Junta on the War against Subversion" in which the military argues that the acts that they committed were under the orders of the current president, Isabel Perón, in which she ordered to "annihilate subversion". In September 1983, the regime then passed
11742-433: Was an Argentine citizen named Buccicardi. Dagmar Hagelin was never found. In 2000 the Argentine government paid compensation to Ragnar Hagelin and his wife for their loss. It was reported at the time that Astiz mistook Dagmar Hagelin for a Montonero activist to whom she bore some physical resemblance, and who was a mutual acquaintance of fellow-activist Norma Susana Burgos. Witnesses testified to having seen Hagelin later at
11856-439: Was an incorrect reading but was justified at the time by four points. Astiz was in protective custody because of special circumstances, i.e. surrendering during war. The Geneva Conventions exhort custodial powers to leniency. Astiz was accused of crimes—kidnapping, wounding and torture—which were illegal in Argentina, and he could, in theory, be prosecuted there. Meyer argues that nothing in the Geneva Conventions expressly prohibited
11970-447: Was believed to have given birth in prison before her death, and it was suspected her child was given illegally for adoption by a military family. On 27 January 1977 Dagmar Hagelin , a 17-year-old girl holding Swedish citizenship through her father Ragnar Hagelin, was shot and wounded by Astiz while attempting to escape capture. From the early 1980s, Ragnar Hagelin battled tirelessly to bring Astiz to justice. His wife and Dagmar's mother
12084-448: Was convicted by an Argentinian court and sentenced to life imprisonment for crimes against humanity committed during the Dirty War . Of the other defendants, 11 were also sentenced to life in prison, four received sentences ranging from 18 to 25 years, and two were acquitted. Since the Kirchner government started prosecuting cases again, Astiz is one of 259 people who by late 2011 had been convicted of human rights abuses committed during
12198-475: Was found in July 2005 in a cemetery about 400 kilometers south of Buenos Aires; forensic DNA testing identified Duquet, Villaflor, and two other founding Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo. The prosecution of charges against Astiz included murder. Together with numerous other defendants associated with ESMA, Astiz was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment in Argentina for crimes against humanity on 26 October 2011. Under Lieutenant Commander Jorge Eduardo Acosta ,
12312-505: Was made on these grounds at the time. British government documents kept secret until released in 2012 under the thirty year rule revealed that Astiz was considered a major problem as a prisoner, that Astiz's custody on board ship was a breach of Article 22 of the Third Geneva Convention, (which states that prisoners must be held on land) and that there had been discrimination between Astiz and his men. There were also concerns for
12426-492: Was seeking extradition of Astiz for the kidnapping and torture of three Italian nationals in 1976 and 1977, and for the abduction of a baby daughter born to one of them: Angela Maria Aieta in 1976, and the kidnapping of Giovanni Pegoraro and his pregnant daughter Susana Pegoraro in 1977. It is believed that Susana gave birth in prison before her death, and Astiz arranged for her baby to be given for illegal adoption to an Argentine military family. Argentine newspapers reported at
12540-499: Was shot dead by a Royal Marine who mistakenly thought he was trying to scuttle a captured submarine. The United Kingdom Government informed Argentina through Brazilian diplomats that a board of inquiry would be convened under the provisions of the 1949 Geneva Conventions to review the death. The next day the United Kingdom claimed the Argentine prisoners were not prisoners of war because they were captured before Argentina had declared hostilities. Six days later they changed their mind. In
12654-410: Was successful in identifying 300 secret detention centers throughout Argentina used during the "Dirty War" that were administered by the military and documenting 8,961 deaths and disappearances from 1976-1977. It also gave evidence that the inquiries made by CONADEP helped to find many of the mass burial sites around Argentina that were used to bury the "disappeared". The report contained an analysis of
12768-406: Was that concerned parties should talk to the I.C.R.C., as it would be taking custody of the prisoners. The I.C.R.C. refused the countries' requests to talk to Astiz if it took custody of him. Both nations in response stepped up diplomatic pressure on the United Kingdom not to transfer Astiz to the I.C.R.C. The United Kingdom decided to send home the 189 other detainees "as an act of compassion." Astiz
12882-407: Was to be held until "the end of the belligerency", initially on Ascension Island . Two weeks later, under pressure from public opinion at home and by the French and Swedish governments, the United Kingdom decided to buy time by transporting Astiz by ship from Ascension Island to the United Kingdom. While Astiz was in transit, it announced he would be made available for interview by representatives of
12996-682: Was witnessed torturing the nuns at ESMA by beating them, immersing them in water and applying electrified cattle prods to their breasts, genitals and mouths. A staged photograph intended to portray their support of the Montoneros , a Peronist leftist group, was leaked to the press. Despite repeated efforts by France to trace the nuns, the Argentine government denied all knowledge of them. In late December 1977, unidentified bodies began washing up on beaches hundreds of kilometers south of Buenos Aires after heavy storms. Autopsies revealed they had died on impact, apparently having been thrown out of aircraft over
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