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180-694: The alfeñique was a typical sweet of Islamic Spain, known as "Al-Fanid", which was warm and wet and used to treat coughs. In the Kingdom of Granada , it was made of sugar, water, honey and almond oil , stretched to create a viscous paste. Alfeñique figures, especially calaveras (known in the US as Sugar Skulls), are widely created in Mexico for the Day of the Dead celebrations in November. Today,

360-548: A mirador , a room projecting from the exterior commanding scenic views of gardens or of the city. Buildings were designed with a mathematical proportional system that gives them a harmonious visual quality. The layout of the courtyards, the distribution of windows, and the use of water features were designed with the climate in mind, cooling and ventilating the environment in summer while minimizing cold drafts and maximizing sunlight in winter. Upper-floor rooms were smaller and more enclosed, making them more suited for use during

540-456: A reflective pool or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of the building and was executed primarily with tile mosaics on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls. Geometric patterns , vegetal motifs , and Arabic inscriptions were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as muqarnas , was used for three-dimensional features like vaulted ceilings. Alhambra derives from

720-493: A "madman". He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad V . As Muhammad V was still a minor, state affairs were managed by the hajib (chamberlain) Ridwan, the vizier Ibn al-Khatib , and the commander of the Ghazi s, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu. Together, they maintained a policy of peace with Castile, paying tribute and providing military assistance against Castile's enemies when requested, such as against Aragon in 1359. Muhammad V's reign

900-589: A Castilian counteroffensive had failed and Gibraltar remained in Muslim control thereafter until 1462. On 25 August 1333, Muhammad IV was assassinated by the sons of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, who were opposed to his policy of close relations with the Marinids. Muhammad IV was succeeded by his brother, Yusuf I ( r.  1333–1354 ), whose reign would mark the beginning of the Nasrid emirate's golden age. He began by expelling

1080-620: A ceiling in the still unfinished palace of Charles V". He also carried out systematic archaeological excavations in various parts of the Alhambra, unearthing lost Nasrid structures such as the Palacio del Partal Alto and the Palace of the Abencerrajes which provided deeper insight into the former palace-city as a whole. The work of Torres Balbás was continued by his assistant, Francisco Prieto Moreno, who

1260-654: A communal kitchen, a hammam , and a water supply cistern, as well as multiple subterranean chambers which served as dungeons and silos . The royal palace complex consists of three main parts, from west to east: the Mexuar, the Comares Palace, and the Palace of the Lions. Collectively, these palaces are also known as the Casa Real Vieja ('Old Royal Palace'), to distinguish them from the newer palaces erected next to them during

1440-448: A contrast between the ornate architecture of the former Moorish palaces and their current state of ruin and neglect. This also coincided with a growing European interest in the Orient ( Orientialism ), which encouraged an emphasis on exoticism and on the "oriental" attributes of the Alhambra. This rediscovery of the Alhambra was led mostly by French, British, and German writers. In 1830,

1620-531: A cousin named Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad, who took the throne as Muhammad VI ( r.  1360–1362 ). While in Fez, Muhammad V was accompanied by Ibn al-Khatib, who remained loyal to him. Both men also met Ibn Khaldun , who supported their cause. Eventually, Muhammad V secured the support he needed from Peter of Castile. With the support of Peter, of Uthman ibn Yahya ibn Raḥḥu (the son of Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu), and of another figure named Ali ibn Kumasha, he returned to

1800-512: A difficult siege. The siege is also notable for the first recorded use of cannons on the Iberian Peninsula, used in this case by the Muslim defenders. In the long term, the Battle of Rio Salado and the capture of Algeciras put an end to North African military interventions on the Iberian Peninsula, which had been a recurring feature of the conflicts around al-Andalus since the 11th century. This

1980-521: A feature especially characteristic of the Alhambra, were carved along the walls and included Qur'anic excerpts, poetry by Nasrid court poets, and the repetition of the Nasrid motto " wa la ghalib illa-llah " ( Arabic : ولا غالب إلا الله , lit.   'And there is no victor but God'). White marble quarried from Macael (in Almeria province ) was also used to make fountains and slender columns. The capitals of columns typically consisted of

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2160-476: A fire destroyed a large part of the Sala de la Barca in the Comares Palace, which highlighted the site's vulnerability. A report was commissioned in 1903. This resulted in the creation of a "Special Commission" in 1905. The Special Commission was tasked to oversee conservation and restoration of the Alhambra. The commission ultimately failed to exercise control due to friction with Contreras. In 1907, Mariano Contreras

2340-444: A former Nasrid country estate and summer palace accompanied by historic orchards and modern landscaped gardens. The architecture of the Nasrid palaces reflects the tradition of Moorish architecture developed over previous centuries. It is characterized by the use of the courtyard as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as

2520-564: A full siege and a fresh campaign of conquest. In the end, the Muslim kingdoms of Granada and North Africa did not provide extensive assistance. By 1265, the Castilians were invading the Vega (valley) of Granada and Ibn al-Ahmar was forced to renegotiate peace. By the time the rebellion was over, the surviving Mudéjar inhabitants of Andalucia were mostly expelled and their towns resettled by Christians from other parts of Castile. Ibn al-Ahmar's position

2700-455: A lower cylindrical section sculpted with stylized acanthus leaves, an upper cubic section with vegetal or geometric motifs, and inscriptions (like the Nasrid motto) running along the base or the top edge. While the stucco decoration, wooden ceilings, and marble capitals of the Alhambra often appear colourless or monochrome today, they were originally painted in bright colours. Primary colours – red, blue, and (in place of yellow) gold – were

2880-483: A main hall, all aligned along a central axis from west to east. Little remains of the two western courtyards of the Mexuar today, except for their foundations, a portico, and the water basin of a fountain. The main hall, known as the Sala del Mexuar or Council Hall, served as a throne hall where the sultan received and judged petitions. This area also granted access to the Comares Palace via the Cuarto Dorado section on

3060-505: A major invasion and besieged Granada. In the Battle of the Vega that followed, Granada scored one of its most decisive victories ever against the Castilians. Isma'il I went on to recover some towns, including Baeza and Martos . Isma'il I was assassinated by a cousin in July 1325 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad IV ( r.  1325–1333 ), who was still a child. During this time, the emirate

3240-485: A more ambitious crusading military policy against Granada. The emirate's position was exacerbated by violent internal confrontations with the Banu Sarraj. This political chaos contributed to the final capture of Gibraltar by Castile in 1462. In the mid-15th century, Castile was preoccupied with several civil conflicts and disputes over succession. Henry IV had only one child, Isabella , who in 1468 married Ferdinand ,

3420-503: A narrow promontory overlooking the Vega or Plain of Granada and carved by the river Darro on its north side as it descends from the Sierra Nevada . The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stone- reinforced construction ( tapial calicastrado ) its characteristic hue and is at

3600-624: A number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a fortified wall , with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the Torre de la Infanta and Torre de la Cautiva containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Sabika Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on

3780-547: A palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure. This first hydraulic system was expanded afterwards and included two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau. The only elements preserved from the time of Ibn al-Ahmar are some of the fortification walls, particularly the Alcazaba at the western end of the complex. Ibn al-Ahmar did not have time to complete any major new palaces and he may have initially lived in one of

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3960-562: A path forward by making or breaking alliances according to circumstances. Muhammad II also made major changes to the army of his emirate. In addition to local recruits, he recruited Zenata Berbers from North Africa, who thenceforth composed the most important element of the army and were known as the Ghazi s , or Warriors of the Faith . Many were political exiles from the Marinid kingdom, including some from

4140-462: A reliable defender of al-Andalus. One of Ibn Hud's foremost military commanders had been a man called Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr , commonly known as Ibn al-Ahmar, who was born in Arjona . His position in the army reportedly aroused the envy of others who accused him of planning a coup against Ibn Hud, forcing him to flee to Arjona. Ibn al-Ahmar's origins were likely modest, but he seems to have acquired

4320-656: A reputation for piety and as a successful military leader. With Ibn Hud's position weakened by his defeats, the inhabitants of the Arjona area declared Ibn al-Ahmar as their emir after Friday prayers on 16 July 1232 (26 Ramadan 629 AH ). Ibn al-Ahmar was related to the Nasrids on his father's side and to the Banu Ashqilula on his mother's side. These two families thus formed the initial core of his small army, along with other volunteers and Andalusi soldiers who had previously served

4500-593: A role in inciting the rebellion, but he did support it. The rebellion represents the last serious attempt to reverse the Castilian conquests of the 13th century and break the Christian hold on southern Iberian Peninsula. The conditions for this must have appeared favourable at the time. Ibn al-Ahmar was enjoying good relations with the Hafsids (based in present-day Tunisia ) and the Marinids (based in present-day Morocco), while

4680-514: A royal residence for his use. He rebuilt or modified portions of the Nasrid palaces to serve as royal apartments, a process which began in 1528 and was completed in 1537. He also demolished a part of the Comares Palace to make way for a monumental new palace, known as the Palace of Charles V, designed in the Renaissance style of the period. Construction of the palace began in 1527 but it was eventually left unfinished after 1637. The governorship of

4860-544: A sizeable portion of this territory, roughly corresponding to the modern Spanish provinces of Granada , Almería , and Málaga . By 1250, the Nasrid emirate was the last independent Muslim polity in the peninsula. The emirate generally existed as a tributary state of the rising Crown of Castile , though it frequently warred with the latter and with other neighboring states over control of its frontier regions. Despite its precarious position, Granada enjoyed considerable cultural and economic prosperity for over two centuries and

5040-455: A third period of Taifa kingdoms. Of these leaders, the most powerful was initially Ibn Hud of Murcia ( r.  1228–1238 ), who had rebelled against the last Almohad governors and managed to unite much of what remained of al-Andalus. However, in 1231 Ibn Hud was defeated by the Leónese and lost control of Badajoz and the surrounding area, which compromised his authority and reputation as

5220-657: A while longer in Almería, but any hope of successful resistance ended after the Spanish capture of Baeza in November 1489. He negotiated the surrender of Almería and Guadix and agreed to retire himself to the Alpujarras region, but soon afterwards he abandoned al-Andalus completely. In 1489–90, he sold all his lands and moved to Oran (present-day Algeria ) in North Africa. Only Granada remained under Muslim control by 1490. Boabdil and

5400-509: Is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada , Spain . It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the historic Islamic world , in addition to containing notable examples of Spanish Renaissance architecture . The complex was begun in 1238 by Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar , the first Nasrid emir and founder of the Emirate of Granada ,

5580-566: Is the structure known as the Palacio del Partal Alto , in an elevated location near the centre of the complex, which probably dates from the reign of Ibn al-Ahmar's son, Muhammad II (r. 1273–1302). To the south was the Palace of the Abencerrajes, and to the east was another private palace, known as the Palace of the Convent of San Francisco , both of which were probably also originally constructed during

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5760-602: The Alcazar in the style of Granada's art and architecture. Muhammad V died in 1391, bringing an end to the Nasrid dynasty's golden years. Until its fall in the late 15th century, the dynasty became embroiled in succession disputes, rivalries, and assassinations. Internal conflicts often revolved around the Banu Sarraj family (known in Spanish sources as the Abencerrajes) and their rivals, who ruthlessly pursued their own interests at

5940-772: The Almoravids in the late 11th century and followed by the Almohads in the mid 12th century. The Almohad regime grew more unstable following the defeat of the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 by a coalition of Christian kingdoms from the north. In 1228, the Almohad caliph Idris al-Ma'mun , wishing to focus on retaining control of the Maghreb (North Africa), decided to abandon al-Andalus. The resultant power vacuum allowed local leaders to carve out their own small states, creating

6120-512: The Arabic الْحَمْرَاء ( al-Ḥamrāʼ  , pronounced [alħamˈraːʔ] ), meaning lit.   ' the red one ' (f.), the complete form of which was الْقَلْعَةُ ٱلْحَمْرَاءُ al-Qalʻat al-Ḥamrāʼ  "the red fortress ( qalat )". The "Al-" in "Alhambra" means "the" in Arabic, but this is ignored in general usage in both English and Spanish, where the name is normally given

6300-558: The Generalife . Previously, the old fortresses on the hill had been dependent on rainwater collected from the cistern near the Alcazaba and on what could be brought up from the Darro River below. The creation of the Sultan's Canal (Arabic: ساقلتة السلطان , romanized:  Saqiyat al-Sultan ), which brought water from the mountains to the east, solidified the identity of the Alhambra as

6480-730: The Ottoman sultan Bayezid II ( r.  1481–1512 ). One of the documents that a Christianized Andalusi wrote to the sultan requested his help and described in poor poetry the abuse of the courts of the Inquisition , calling on him to support his defeated brothers. But Bayezid was preoccupied with the disputes of the Ottoman family , so he was content to send a note of protest to the two Catholic monarchs, on which they did not act. Alhambra The Alhambra ( / æ l ˈ h æ m b r ə / , Spanish: [aˈlambɾa] ; Arabic : الْحَمْرَاء , romanized :  al-ḥamrāʼ  )

6660-515: The Palace of the Lions , and the Partal Palace , which form the main attraction to visitors today. The other palaces are known from historical sources and from modern excavations. At the Alhambra's western tip is the Alcazaba fortress . Multiple smaller towers and fortified gates are also located along the Alhambra's walls. Outside the Alhambra walls and located nearby to the east is the Generalife ,

6840-510: The Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) ran the Calle Real (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, with mosques , hamams (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albaicín. The rest of the plateau comprises

7020-573: The Rawda , the dynastic mausoleum of the Nasrids, of which only partial remains are preserved. Yusuf I (r. 1333–1354) carried out further work on the Comares Palace, including the construction of the Hall of Ambassadors and other works around the current Mexuar. He also built the Alhambra's main gate, the Puerta de la Justicia , and the Torre de la Cautiva , one of several small towers with richly-decorated rooms along

7200-502: The Reconquista . Isabella urged Christians to pursue a conquest of North Africa. Initially, under the conditions of surrender, the Muslims who remained were guaranteed their property, laws, customs, and religion. This however, did not ensue, causing the Muslims to rebel against their Christian rulers, culminating with an uprising in 1500 . The rebellion was seen as a chance to formally end

7380-552: The Torre de Siete Suelos , the Torre de las Cabezas , and the Torres Bermejas – were built or reinforced in this period, as seen by the addition of semi-round bastions . In 1512 the Count was also awarded the property of Mondéjar and subsequently passed on the title of Marquis of Mondéjar to his descendants. Charles V (r. 1516–1556) visited the Alhambra in 1526 with his wife Isabella of Portugal and decided to convert it into

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7560-607: The Zirids on the Albaicín hill to a new citadel he founded on the Sabika hill to the south. This became the Alhambra ( al-Qal'a al-Hamra , the 'Red Citadel'). Despite Ibn al-Ahmar's earlier alliance with Castile, Ferdinand III still attacked and captured Arjona in 1244. In the summer of 1245 he began the siege of Jaén, a more important and well-fortified town. Ibn al-Ahmar initially supported

7740-423: The northern Christian kingdoms was recurrent, while mounting civil strife led to the fragmentation of al-Andalus into smaller Taifa states in the early 11th century. This marked a precipitous decline in the power of Iberian Muslim polities and facilitated the centuries-long Christian Reconquista and the recurrent conquest of al-Andalus by North African dynasties based in what is now Morocco , commencing with

7920-480: The zilīj -covered dados and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts. Inscriptions typically ran in vertical or horizontal bands or they were set inside cartouches of round or rectangular shape. Most major inscriptions in the Alhambra use the Naskhi or cursive script, which was the most common script used in writing after

8100-415: The 13th century Kufic scripts in the western Islamic world became increasingly stylized in architectural contexts and could be nearly illegible. In the Alhambra, there are many examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots. The extensions of these letters could turn into strips that continued and formed more abstract motifs, or sometimes formed

8280-532: The 19th century. The original Arabic names of the Nasrid-era buildings are not known, although some scholars have proposed connections between certain buildings and some of the names mentioned in historical sources. The evidence for a Roman presence is unclear but archaeologists have found remains of ancient foundations on the Sabika hill. A fortress or citadel, probably dating from the Visigothic period, existed on

8460-609: The Alhambra and Generalife were also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The Alhambra is now one of the most popular tourist destinations in Spain. Research, archaeological investigations, and restoration works have also remained ongoing into the 21st century. The Alhambra site is about 700–740 m (2,300–2,430 ft) in length and about 200–205 m (660–670 ft) at its greatest width. It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 m (1,530,000 sq ft) or 35 acres. It stands on

8640-585: The Alhambra in 1914, which was charged again with overseeing the site's conservation and Cendoya's work. In 1915, it was linked directly to the Directorate-General of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Education (later the Ministry of National Education). Like Mariano Contreras before him, Cendoya continued to clash with the supervisory body and to obstruct their control. He was eventually dismissed from his post in 1923. After Cendoya, Leopoldo Torres Balbás

8820-409: The Alhambra into an icon of the era with their writings and illustrations during the 19th century. Restoration work on the Alhambra was undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII . After the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued by his son Rafael (died 1890) and his grandson Mariano Contreras (died 1912). The Contreras family members continued to be

9000-534: The Alhambra itself being attacked, when the forces of the Catholic Monarchs , King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile , took the surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers. Muhammad XII moved the remains of his ancestors from the complex, as was verified by Leopoldo Torres Balbás in 1925, when he found seventy empty tombs. The remains are now likely to be located in Mondújar in

9180-565: The Alhambra was the construction of the Palace of the Lions to the east of the Comares Palace in an area previously occupied by gardens. He also remodelled the Mexuar, created the highly decorated "Comares Façade" in the Patio del Cuarto Dorado , and redecorated the Court of the Myrtles, giving these areas much of their final appearance. After Muhammad V, relatively little major construction work occurred in

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9360-418: The Alhambra's purported " Oriental " character. For example, in 1858–1859 Rafael Contreras and Juan Pugnaire added Persian-looking spherical domes to the Court of the Lions and to the northern portico of the Court of the Myrtles, even though these had nothing to do with Nasrid architecture. In 1868, a revolution deposed Isabella II and the government seized the properties of the Spanish monarchy, including

9540-637: The Alhambra. In 1870 the Alhambra was declared a National Monument of Spain and the state allocated a budget for its conservation, overseen by the Provincial Commission of Monuments. Mariano Contreras, the last of the Contreras architects to serve as director of conservation of the Alhambra, was appointed as architectural curator in April 1890. His tenure was controversial and his conservation strategy attracted criticism from other authorities. In September 1890,

9720-408: The Alhambra. One exception is the Torre de las Infantas , which dates from the time of Muhammad VII (1392–1408). The 15th century saw the Nasrid dynasty in decline and in turmoil, with few significant construction projects and a more repetitive, less innovative style of architecture. The last Nasrid sultan, Muhammad XII of Granada , surrendered the Emirate of Granada in January 1492, without

9900-407: The Almohad architectural tradition that preceded the Nasrids. The exterior façade of the gate is decorated with a polylobed moulding with glazed tiles inside a rectangular alfiz frame. Inside the gate's passage is a dome that is painted to simulate the appearance of red brick, a decorative feature characteristic of the Nasrid period. Two other exterior gates existed, both located further east. On

10080-514: The Almohads. Other prominent families, such as the Banu 'l-Mawl of Cordoba and the Banu Sinadid of Jaén , joined them over the next years and thereafter remained attached to the Nasrid court. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I , respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus, which the Taifa kingdoms attempted in vain to resist. Ibn al-Ahmar's new status attracted support from many Muslim towns in

10260-400: The American writer Washington Irving lived in Granada and wrote his Tales of the Alhambra , first published in 1832, which played a major role in spurring international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments like the Alhambra. Other artists and intellectuals, such as John Frederick Lewis , Richard Ford , François-René de Chateaubriand , and Owen Jones , helped make

10440-418: The Banu'l-Ula (the family of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula) from his realm, in revenge for the killing of his brother, and placed another Marinid family member, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu, in charge of the Ghazi s. Alfonso XI remained a threat and the war between Castile and the Marinids and Nasrids continued, culminating in the Battle of Rio Salado in 1340. At sea, the Marinid navy, assisted by Hafsid ships, defeated

10620-447: The Castilian fleet, assisted by Catalan ships. On land, however, the combined forces of Castile and Portugal, along with volunteers from elsewhere in Europe, decisively defeated the Marinid and Nasrid forces at the Salado River, near Tarifa. The Christian victory was a major milestone, allowing Castile to capture important towns on the frontier, such as Priego and Alcala la Real in 1342. Castile also captured Algeciras in 1344 after

10800-435: The Castilians. The fall of Seville and the long-term truce with Castile effectively established the political map of the region until the 15th century. The peace allowed the Nasrid emirate to consolidate its territory and build up its governing institutions. While Granada's vassalage is emphasized by Christian sources, in practice Ibn al-Ahmar pledged allegiance to different suzerains at different times, depending on what

10980-463: The Christian Spanish period. The Mexuar is the westernmost part of the palace complex. It was analogous to the mashwar s (or mechouar s) of royal palaces in North Africa. It was first built as part of the larger complex begun by Isma'il I which included the Comares Palace. It housed many of the administrative and more public functions of the palace, such as the chancery and the treasury. Its layout consisted of two consecutive courtyards followed by

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11160-445: The Dead celebrations, many families display the objects, particularly the skulls, in their homes. In Oaxaca , they commonly take the shape of skulls, crowns, crucifixes, the dead and are made from crystallized sugar with honey in the center. In the State of Mexico , the most common objects are coffins, hearses, deer, sheep, angels, fruit, and skulls made of white sugar paste. In Puebla , the most common objects are skulls and coffins and

11340-505: The Dead celebrations. There are regional fairs and events that celebrate this art form, including ones in Toluca, Mexico State and in Leon, Guanajuato . The paste is prepared by mixing powdered sugar with chautle, a vegetable adhesive, and lemon. Egg whites are beaten separately then folded into the sugar. Vegetable dyes are added for color. The unworked portion is covered with a damp cloth to keep it from hardening. Molds are prepared by carefully cleaning them, then dusting them with flour so

11520-538: The Iberian Peninsula completely and focus on his campaigns in the Maghreb instead. He ceded Algeciras and Ronda to the Nasrids, thus restoring some of Granada's former territories. After Sancho IV's death in 1295, Muhammad II spent the rest of his reign going on the offensive against Castile, taking advantage of the weakness of the young new king, Ferdinand IV . He nurtured an alliance with James II of Aragon , raided Castilian territory, and recaptured two frontier forts at Alcaudete and Quesada. After his death in 1302, he

11700-522: The Iberian Peninsula in 1362. Peter and Muhammad V's forces marched on Granada, capturing various towns and the important city of Malaga. With his fortunes turning for the worse, Muhammad VI, reportedly on the advice of his allies, surrendered himself to Peter of Castile and asked for mercy. Peter executed him instead, leaving his ally Muhammad V to reclaim the throne in 1362. After his return to power, Muhammad V continued his policy of peace with Castile and remained pragmatic. Under his rule, Nasrid diplomacy

11880-417: The Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus , since 711. By the late 12th century, following the expansion of Christian kingdoms in the north, the area of Muslim control had been reduced to the southern parts of the peninsula governed by the Almohad Caliphate . After Almohad control retreated in 1228, the ambitious Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar rose to power and established the Nasrid dynasty in control of

12060-428: The Marinid family itself, and some were failed rebels against the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf ( r.  1258–1286 ). Muhammad II's first preoccupation was the Banu Ashqilula, who retained Malaga and even received some recognition from Alfonso X and from Abu Yusuf. He sought assistance from the Marinid sultan and offered him a base on the Iberian Peninsula. Abu Yusuf, who had recently captured Tangier and Ceuta on

12240-399: The Marinids as a greater threat. He made an alliance with Alfonso X and incited the Zayyanids of Tlemcen , led by Yaghmurasan , to attack the Marinids. While Alfonso X blockaded Malaga by sea, Muhammad II convinced the Marinid governor of Malaga to surrender the city to him in 1279. After a Castilian attack against Algeciras failed, however, Alfonso X made peace with the Marinids. In 1281,

12420-489: The Marinids, the Castilians, and the Banu Ashqilula joined forces to attack Granada. Muhammad II's forces managed to repel the attack, thanks in large part to the effectiveness of his new Zenata troops. The deaths of Alfonso X in 1284 and of Abu Yusuf in 1286 relieved the pressure on Granada. In 1288, Muhammad II was able to finally expel the last Banu Ashqilula from Guadix, who fled to Morocco. The Marinids, now led by Abu Ya'qub , still retained Tarifa and Algeciras. In 1292,

12600-662: The Muslim population to reorganize themselves politically. After the surrender of Granada, Boabdil remained for a little over a year in a country estate in the mountainous Alpujarras, as lord of Mondújar  [ es ] , before leaving for Fez in North Africa. According to al-Maqqari (d. 1632), he died in 1518 or in 1533 and was buried in Fez. Another account, by 16th-century writer Luis del Mármol Carvajal , claims that Boabdil died instead in battle in 1536. Al-Maqqari also reports that in his time (c. 1617), Boabdil's descendants were living in poverty in Fez. About 200,000 Muslims are thought to have emigrated to North Africa after

12780-643: The Muslims in the old territories of Castile to the north, who lived in stable communities and were relatively well-integrated into Castilian society. Instead, it involved the Muslim inhabitants of the Guadalquivir valley and of Castilian Andalucia , for whom the Castilian conquests of the 13th century had represented a major and still recent disruption of their communities. Some of these communities, like those of Murcia and Niebla , had been allowed to govern themselves under Castilian overlordship, while others were subjected to forced displacement and lived under harsher conditions. It's unclear whether Ibn al-Ahmar played

12960-485: The Muslims tried to start a dialogue to mitigate its effects, the authorities insisted on implementing its content. In 1568, a new rebellion broke out, which lasted three years and spread to most of the areas where there was a Muslim presence. The Spanish authorities eventually succeeded in repressing it. As a result of the repression of the Moriscos, some of them requested help from the Muslim sultans and princes, headed by

13140-475: The Nasrid Palaces. This was originally the main access point to the complex for the regular residents of the city, since it was accessible from the Albaicín side, but after the Christian conquest the Puerta de la Justicia was favoured by Ferdinand and Isabella. The gate, one of the earliest structures built in the Alhambra in the 13th century, is one of the Alhambra structures that bears the most resemblance to

13320-654: The Nasrid palaces, the Palacio del Partal Alto (near the Partal Palace), to use as family residence. Iñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones (d. 1515), the second Count of Tendilla , was present in Ferdinand II's entourage when Muhammad XII surrendered the keys to the Alhambra and he became the Alhambra's first Spanish governor. For almost 24 years after the conquest, he made repairs and modifications to its fortifications in order to better protect it against gunpowder artillery attacks. Multiple towers and fortifications – such as

13500-553: The Nasrids attempted to leverage the aid of the North African Marinids to ward off Castile, although Marinid interventions in the peninsula ended after Battle of Rio Salado (1340). The population of the emirate was swelled by Muslim refugees from the territories newly conquered by Castile and Aragon, resulting in a small yet densely-populated territory which was more uniformly Muslim and Arabic-speaking than before. The Alhambra palace complex, which Ibn al-Ahmar founded,

13680-412: The Nasrids became one of the longest-lived Muslim dynasties in the Iberian Peninsula. The famed Alhambra palace complex was built during this period. The population of the emirate, swollen by refugees from the north, was more homogenously Muslim and Arabic -speaking than in earlier Muslim states on the peninsula, with a Jewish minority also present. The political and cultural apogee of Nasrid Granada

13860-545: The Nasrids. Boabdil returned to Granada in 1487, this time with Castilian support, and managed to force al-Zaghal to flee. Once in control, he made initial offers to surrender Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella and he even cooperated at times with the Spanish forces. Meanwhile, al-Zaghal continued to lead a fierce resistance against the Spanish from outside Granada, forcing the Catholic Monarchs to deal with him first. The Siege of Málaga took place from May to August 1487 and

14040-430: The Palace of the Lions, talk about the palace or room in which they're situated and are written in the first person, as if the room itself was speaking to the reader. Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions—often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"—are generally used as decorative elements. Kufic calligrams , particularly of

14220-621: The Tendilla-Mondéjar family came to an end in 1717–1718, when Philip V confiscated the family's properties in the Alhambra and dismissed the Marquis of Mondéjar, José de Mendoza Ibáñez de Segovia (1657–1734), from his position as mayor ( alcaide ) of the Alhambra, in retaliation for the Marquis opposing him in the War of the Spanish Succession . The departure of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family marked

14400-541: The Treaty of Granada, withdrawing the rights of Muslims. Muslims in the area were given the choice of expulsion or conversion. Those who remained and officially converted were thereafter known as Moriscos . Philip II of Spain ( r.  1556–1598 ) issued multiple decrees against the Morisco population, including the decree issued in 1563, which prohibited them from carrying arms, and the decree issued in 1566, which prohibited

14580-505: The Zayyanid sultan in Tlemcen. When Henry captured Seville in 1366, forcing Peter to flee north, Muhammad V adapted by negotiating a new peace with him. When Peter returned to Seville in 1367, Muhammad V again renewed his loyalty to him. When Peter was assassinated in 1369, leaving Castile in further chaos, Muhammad V took advantage of the situation to recapture Algeciras that year. He destroyed

14760-652: The Zirids, a Sanhaja Berber group and offshoot of the Zirids who ruled parts of North Africa . When the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed after 1009 and the Fitna (civil war) began, the Zirid leader Zawi ben Ziri established an independent kingdom for himself, the Taifa of Granada . The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as the al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma ("Old Citadel" or "Old Palace"), on

14940-524: The amenities of a Muslim city such as a Friday mosque , hammams (public baths), roads, houses, artisan workshops, a tannery , and a sophisticated water supply system. As a royal city and citadel, it contained at least six major palaces, most of them located along the northern edge where they commanded views over the Albaicín quarter. The most famous and best-preserved are the Mexuar , the Comares Palace ,

15120-497: The archway on the exterior façade, while the image of a key, another symbol of faith, is carved above the archway on the inner façade. A Christian-era sculpture of the Virgin and Christ Child was inserted later into another niche just inside the gate. Near the outside of the gate is the Pilar de Carlos V , a Renaissance-style fountain built in 1524 with some further alterations in 1624. At

15300-414: The area. Its tallest tower, the 26 m (85 ft) high Torre del Homenaje ('Tower of Homage'), was the keep and military command post of the complex. It may have also been the first residence of Ibn al-Ahmar inside the Alhambra while the complex was being constructed. The westernmost tower, the 25 m (82 ft) high Torre de la Vela , acted as a watch tower. The flag of Ferdinand and Isabella

15480-492: The beginning of the Alhambra's most severe period of decline. During this period the Spanish state dedicated few resources to it and its management was taken over by self-interested local governors who lived with their families inside the neglected palaces. Over subsequent years the Alhambra was further damaged. Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied by Napoleon 's army during the Peninsular War . The French troops, under

15660-511: The city and from then on its former territory became attached to Gibraltar instead. Domestically, Muhammad V eliminated the office of the shaykh al-ghuzat , the chief of the Ghazi s, in 1370, placing the Zenata troops under the direct command of the Nasrid family for the first time. The emirate was relatively free of internal conflict during his second reign. This period also marked the pinnacle of Nasrid culture. The vizier Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1375)

15840-420: The city opened its gates to the rebels and Nasr was forced to abdicate and retire to Guadix. Isma'il I ( r.  1314–1325 ) became the new sultan and proved to be an effective ruler. From Guadix, Nasr caused him trouble and secured an alliance with Castile, which was then under the reign of Alfonso XI , a child overseen by two regents, Pedro and Juan. Border conflicts ensued until 1319, when Castile launched

16020-456: The city. After taking direct control of it, he decided to make it his new capital instead of Jaén, as Granada was a more important city in al-Andalus and its location was more strategic: it was geographically more defensible, farther from the Castilian frontier, and had better access to the sea. Additionally, he chose to move the ruler's residence from the Old Citadel ( al-Qasaba al-Qadima ) of

16200-461: The command of Count Sebastiani , occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument. Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex to prevent it from being re-used as a fortified position. They successfully blew up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, whose actions saved what remains today. In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage. In

16380-578: The complex today, and commissioned the construction of the Alhambra's main mosque (no longer extant). Muhammad III then set his aims on controlling the Strait of Gibraltar. With the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula , a rebel Marinid prince, he incited a rebellion against the Marinids in Ceuta and in the Gomara Mountains of Morocco. In 1306 or 1307, he captured Ceuta. He secured an alliance with Tlemcen, which

16560-635: The conquest of al-Andalus by the Almoravids from North Africa during the late 11th century. In the mid-12th century they were followed by the Almohads . After 1228 Almohad rule collapsed and local rulers and factions emerged again across the territory of Al-Andalus. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I , respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile captured Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248 . Meanwhile, Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became

16740-403: The decorated backgrounds that were often painted in red, blue, or turquoise (with other colours mixed into the details). The main gate of the Alhambra is the large Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice), known in Arabic as Bab al-Shari'a ( Arabic : باب الشريعة , lit.   'Gate of Shari'a (law)'), which served as the main entrance on the south side of the walled complex. It

16920-601: The defenders, but in March 1246 he met with Ferdinand and negotiated a new treaty. In the Treaty of Jaén, referred to in Arabic sources as al-silm al-kabir ('the great peace'), Ibn al-Ahmar agreed to surrender Jaén and to become Ferdinand's vassal , while Castile recognized the existence of the Emirate of Granada as a state and agreed to a twenty-year truce. In 1248, Ibn al-Ahmar actively aided Ferdinand in his successful siege of Seville by sending his own military contingent to assist

17100-414: The definite article. The reference to the colour "red" in the name is due to the reddish colour of its walls, which were constructed of rammed earth . The reddish colour comes from the iron oxide in the local clay used for this type of construction. Most of the names used today for specific structures and locations within the Alhambra are imaginative names coined after the mediaeval period , often in

17280-558: The design of buildings, probably because inscriptions came to feature so prominently in their decoration. The head of the chancery was often also the vizier (prime minister) of the sultan. Although not exactly architects, the terms of office of many individuals in these positions coincide with the major phases of construction in the Alhambra, which suggests that they played a role in leading construction projects. The most important figures who held these positions, such as Ibn al-Jayyab , Ibn al-Khatib , and Ibn Zamrak , also composed much of

17460-518: The early 19th century, the site was described as being occupied by prisoners, disabled soldiers and other marginalized people. As early as the second half of the 18th century, the Alhambra's appearance and details began to be documented by Spanish illustrators and officials. By the first decade of the 19th century, other European writers began to bring attention to it and the site subsequently became an object of fascination for Western Romanticist writers, whose publications frequently sought to evoke

17640-438: The early Islamic period. Thuluth was a derivation of the cursive script often used for more pompous or formal contexts; favoured, for example, in the preambles of documents prepared by the Nasrid chancery. Many inscriptions in the Alhambra were composed in a mixed Naskhi-Thuluth script. Bands of cursive script often alternated with friezes or cartouches of Kufic script. Kufic is the oldest form of Arabic calligraphy, but by

17820-455: The east side of the Council Hall. Multiple parts of the Mexuar were significantly modified in the post- Reconquista period; notably, the Sala del Mexuar was converted into a Christian chapel and additions were made to the Cuarto Dorado to convert it into a residence. Many of these additions were later removed during modern restorations in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Comares Palace

18000-502: The edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription. The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Qur'anic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles. Poets of the Nasrid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace. The inscriptions of the Alhambra are also unique for their frequent self-referential nature and use of personification . Some inscribed poems, such as those in

18180-521: The end of independent Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula. Since the Muslim conquest of 711 , much of the Iberian Peninsula had been under Muslim control. At its greatest geographical extent, Muslim control extended to most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France . By the 10th century, under the Caliphate of Córdoba , the region was one of the most prosperous and advanced in Europe. Conflict with

18360-513: The end of the passage coming from the Puerta de la Justicia is the Plaza de los Aljibes ('Place of the Cisterns'), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Nasrid Palaces. The plaza is named after a large cistern dating to around 1494, commissioned by Iñigo López de Mondoza y Quiñones. The cistern was one of the first works carried out in the Alhambra after the 1492 conquest and it filled what

18540-457: The expense of the emirate's stability. Externally, the emirate remained at peace during some periods thanks mainly to the fact that Castile continued to struggle with its own internal problems as well. War with Castile did break out between 1405 and 1410, followed by a period of peace until 1428. External wars and internal disputes continued through the 1430s and 1440s. During the early reign of Henry IV ( r.  1454–1474 ), Castile resumed

18720-448: The fall of Granada. It is known that many Muslims emigrated to Morocco after the departure of their emir, and some of them successively emigrated to Egypt and the Levant . For Jews as well, a period of tolerance under Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula came to an end with their expulsion by the Christian monarchy in 1492. The Christian conquest of Granada did not extinguish the spirit of

18900-417: The following years, Castile became too preoccupied with internal conflicts to be a serious threat to Granada and a relative peace prevailed on the frontier. Despite the military defeats during his reign, Yusuf I seems to have remained trusted by his subjects and faced no serious internal challenges. Yusuf I was murdered suddenly in 1354 while at prayer in the main mosque of Granada, by a civilian described as

19080-498: The fortress on the Sabika hill and it also formed part of a coracha (from Arabic qawraja ), a type of fortification allowing soldiers from the fortress to access the river and bring back water even during times of siege. The Sabika hill fortress, also known as al-Qasaba al-Jadida ("the New Citadel"), was later used for the foundations of the current Alcazaba of the Alhambra. Under the Zirid kings Habbus ibn Maksan and Badis ,

19260-420: The gate are embellished with ceramic decoration filing the spandrels of the arches and stucco decoration above. On the western side of the gate is the carving of a key symbol like the one on the Puerta de la Justicia . The other main gate of the Alhambra was the Puerta de las Armas ('Gate of Arms'), located on the north side of the Alcazaba, from which a walled ramp leads towards the Plaza de los Aljibes and

19440-592: The hill in the 9th century. The first reference to the Qal‘at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of ‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912). According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The first reference to al-Ḥamrāʼ  came in lines of poetry attached to an arrow shot over

19620-516: The hill now occupied by the Albaicín neighbourhood. It was connected to two other fortresses on the Sabika and Mauror hills to the south. On the Darro River , between the Zirid citadel and the Sabika hill, was a sluice gate called Bāb al-Difāf ("Gate of the Tambourines"), which could be closed to retain water if needed. This gate was part of the fortification connecting the Zirid citadel with

19800-500: The king of Castile, Alfonso X , was preoccupied with other matters. Initially, the Marinids even sent a contingent to assist the rebellion, landing at Tarifa . A number of cities fell into Muslim hands, including Jerez , Utrera , Lebrija , Arcos , and Medina Sidonia . Alfonso X also had to contend with revolts by some of the Castilian nobles. However, his forces progressively took back control. In some cases, as in Jerez, this involved

19980-412: The last Muslim state of Al-Andalus . It was built on the Sabika hill, an outcrop of the Sierra Nevada which had been the site of earlier fortresses and of the 11th-century palace of Samuel ibn Naghrillah . Later Nasrid rulers continuously modified the site. The most significant construction campaigns, which gave the royal palaces much of their defining character, took place in the 14th century during

20160-570: The last and longest reigning Muslim dynasty in the Iberian peninsula, the Nasrids , who ruled the Emirate of Granada . Ibn al-Ahmar was a relatively new political player in the region and likely came from a modest background, but he was able to win the support and consent of multiple Muslim settlements under threat from the Castilian advance. Upon settling in Granada in 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar initially resided in

20340-472: The legitimacy of modern techniques and materials in restoration so long as these were visually recognizable. Many of the buildings in the Alhambra were affected by his work. Some of the inaccurate changes and additions made by the Contreras architects were reversed. The young architect "opened arcades that had been walled up, re-excavated filled-in pools, replaced missing tiles, completed inscriptions that lacked portions of their stuccoed lettering, and installed

20520-664: The main ingredients include almonds, peanuts and pumpkin seeds mixed with sugar and egg, in the style of an almond paste . Kingdom of Granada The Emirate of Granada , also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada , was an Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages , ruled by the Nasrid dynasty . It was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe . Muslims had been present in

20700-501: The main production center for alfeñique figures are Toluca , San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato . Today, the paste is used to form hundreds of types of shapes which include rabbits, lions, ducks, doves, cows, bulls, donkeys, pigs, frogs, horses, deer, angels, skulls and coffins. The art form has taken on more elaborate sculptures that involve more sophisticated and modern techniques that there are now encyclopedic volumes on how to create them for all different occasions, apart from Day of

20880-422: The most important architects and conservators of the Alhambra up until 1907. During this period, they generally followed a theory of "stylistic restoration", which favoured the construction and addition of elements to make a monument "complete" but not necessarily corresponding to any historical reality. They added elements which they deemed to be representative of what they thought was an "Arabic style", emphasizing

21060-561: The most powerful figure in the kingdom was the Jewish administrator known as Samuel ha-Nagid (in Hebrew ) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in Arabic). Samuel built his own palace on the Sabika hill, possibly on the site of the current palaces, although nothing remains of it. It reportedly included gardens and water features. The period of the Taifa kingdoms , during which the Zirids ruled, came to an end with

21240-428: The most prominent and were juxtaposed to achieve a certain aesthetic balance, while other colours were used in more nuanced ways in the background. The Alhambra features various styles of the Arabic epigraphy that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V. José Miguel Puerta Vílchez compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between

21420-513: The new Castilian king, Sancho IV , made an alliance with Granada, Tlemcen, and Portugal with the intention to remove the Marinids from the Iberian Peninsula. He captured Tarifa in October 1292. Muhammad II expected the city to be returned to Nasrid control after this, but Sancho IV refused to cede it and the city thus remained under Christian control permanently. When a Marinid attempt to retake Tarifa failed in 1294, Abu Yaq'ub decided to withdraw from

21600-556: The new Marinid sultan, Abu al-Rabi , and solicit his aid in the defense of Algeciras . Both Algeciras and Almería successfully held out until 1310, when the Aragonese retreated. After managing to capture a few frontier forts, Castile's attacks also ended with the death of Ferdinand IV in 1312. In 1312, Nasr's cousin, Isma'il , launched a rebellion with the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula. In response, Nasr sought assistance from Castile, but this only made him more unpopular. In February 1314,

21780-553: The north side is the Puerta del Arrabal ('Arrabal Gate'), which opens onto the Cuesta de los Chinos ('Slope of the Pebbles'), the ravine between the Alhambra and the Generalife. It was probably created under Muhammad II and served the first palaces of the Alhambra which were built in this area during his reign. It underwent numerous modifications in the later Christian era of the Alhambra. On

21960-409: The northern walls. Muhammad V 's reign (1354–1391, with interruptions) marked the political and cultural apogee of the Nasrid emirate as well as the apogee of Nasrid architecture. Particularly during his second reign (after 1362), there was a stylistic shift towards more innovative architectural layouts and an extensive use of complex muqarnas vaulting. His most significant contribution to

22140-456: The official palace of the sultan and the state, known as the Qaṣr al-Sultan or Dār al-Mulk . The core of this complex was the Comares Palace , while another wing of the palace, the Mexuar , extended to the west. The Comares Baths are the best-preserved element from this initial construction, as the rest of the palace was further modified by his successors. Near the main mosque Isma'il I also created

22320-510: The old citadel of the Zirids on the Albaicin hill, but that same year he began construction of the Alhambra as a new residence and citadel. According to an Arabic manuscript since published as the Anónimo de Madrid y Copenhague , This year, 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra". He examined it, marked the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of directing

22500-399: The oldest Nasrid palace still standing today. Isma'il I (r. 1314–1325) undertook a significant remodelling of the Alhambra. His reign marked the beginning of the "classical" period of Nasrid architecture, during which many major monuments in the Alhambra were begun and decorative styles were consolidated. Isma'il decided to build a new palace complex just east of the Alcazaba to serve as

22680-424: The peace was often interrupted by wars, after which vassalage was often renewed. The political history of the emirate was turbulent and intertwined with that of its neighbors. The Nasrids sometimes provided refuge or military aid to Castilian kings and noblemen, even against other Muslim states, while in turn the Castilians provided refuge and aid to some Nasrid emirs against other Nasrid rivals. On other occasions

22860-827: The poetry that adorns the walls of the Alhambra. Ibn al-Jayyab served as head of the chancery at various times between 1295 and 1349 under six sultans from Muhammad II to Yusuf I. Ibn al-Khatib served as both head of the chancery and as vizier for various periods between 1332 and 1371, under the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V. Ibn Zamrak served as vizier and head of the chancery for periods between 1354 and 1393, under Muhammad V and Muhammad VII. Carved stucco (or yesería in Spanish) and mosaic tilework ( zilīj or zellij in Arabic; alicatado in Spanish ) were used for wall decoration, while ceilings were generally made in wood, which could be carved and painted in turn. Tile mosaics and wooden ceilings often feature geometric motifs . Tilework

23040-607: The principality of Lecrín . After the conquest, the Alhambra became a royal palace and property of the Spanish Crown . Isabella and Ferdinand initially took up residence here and stayed in Granada for several months, up until 25 May 1492. It was during this stay that two major events happened. On 31 March the monarchs signed the Alhambra Decree , which ordered the expulsion of all Jews in Spain who refused to convert. Christopher Columbus , who had also been present to witness

23220-405: The ramparts, recorded by Ibn Hayyan (d. 1076): "Deserted and roofless are the houses of our enemies;   Invaded by the autumnal rains, traversed by impetuous winds; Let them within the red castle (Kalat al hamra) hold their mischievous councils;   Perdition and woe surround them on every side." At the beginning of the 11th century, the region of Granada was dominated by

23400-403: The region hoping for protection. The Nasrid kingdom thus took shape initially by communities consenting to Ibn al-Ahmar's authority, rather than being submitted by conquest. Jaén, Guadix , and Baeza accepted his authority quickly in 1232, while Almería accepted him 1238 and Malaga did so in 1238 or 1239. Ibn al-Ahmar had more difficulty being recognized in larger cities, where his rule

23580-523: The reigns of Yusuf I and Muhammad V . After the conclusion of the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered. In 1526, Charles V commissioned a new Renaissance-style palace in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid palaces, but it

23760-540: The remaining Nasrid elites negotiated with Ferdinand and Isabella, though little progress was made either way during that year. By 1491, the city itself lay under siege. On 25 November 1491, the Treaty of Granada was signed, setting out the conditions for surrender. On 2 January 1492, Boabdil surrendered Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella. Although some remained, the Castilians encouraged the Nasrid aristocracy to leave for North Africa, as it would likely frustrate any attempts by

23940-517: The restless Castilian nobility against a common enemy and instill subjects with a sense of loyalty to the crown. Granada's successful capture of the Castilian frontier town of Zahara in December 1481 marked the last time it was able to gain ground against Castile. The Granada War began in 1482, with Christian forces capturing Alhama de Granada in February. This was a major Christian victory, as Alhama

24120-485: The root of the name of 'the Red Hill'. The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcazaba, a large fortress overlooking the city. Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice) onto a large souq or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development. From

24300-415: The same time, internal turmoil rocked the Nasrid state. A coup d'état in March 1309 forced Muhammad III to abdicate in favour of his brother, Nasr ( r.  1309–1314 ). In the summer, Castile captured Gibraltar with the aid of Aragonese ships, Aragon laid siege to Almería , and a rebellion returned Ceuta to Marinid control. With Ceuta no longer under Granada's hold, Nasr was able to make peace with

24480-481: The service of the Nasrids as commander of the Ghazi s, a position which his family continued to hold for much of that century. Abu Thabit died in 1308, before he was able to retake Ceuta from the Nasrids. The Nasrid successes in the Strait of Gibraltar aroused concerns in Castile and Aragon. Ferdinand IV and James II agreed to launch a joint invasion of Granada, planning to divide the Nasrid territories between them. At

24660-401: The site. The Alhambra was one of the first Islamic monuments to become the object of modern scientific study and has been the subject of numerous restorations since the 19th century. It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . During the Nasrid era, the Alhambra was a self-contained city separate from the rest of Granada below. It contained most of

24840-484: The son of John II of Aragon . By 1479, both Henry IV and John II had died, leaving Isabella and Ferdinand as rulers of a united Castile and Aragon. This was a pivotal turning point, as Granada could no longer play the two kingdoms against each other to ensure its own survival. The new royal couple, known as the Catholic Monarchs , were also united in their intention to conquer the emirate. The war against Granada offered an opportunity for Ferdinand and Isabella to harness

25020-415: The south side is the Puerta de los Siete Suelos ('Gate of Seven Floors'), which was almost entirely destroyed by the explosions set off by the departing French troops in 1812. The present gate was reconstructed in the 1970s with help of remaining fragments and of multiple old engravings that illustrate the former gate. The original gate was probably built in the mid-14th century and its original Arabic name

25200-582: The southern side of the Strait of Gibraltar , thus occupied Algeciras and Tarifa in 1275, along with Ronda further inland. While he conducted damaging raids into Christian territory, he invited both Muhammad II and the Banu Ashqilula leaders ( Abu Muhammad ibn Ashqilula of Malaga and Abu Ishaq of Guadix) to join him. In 1278, the Banu Ashqilula decided to give Malaga to Abu Yusuf, who now occupied this city as well. By now, Muhammad II felt disillusioned and saw

25380-551: The successful siege of Teba in 1330. Muhammad IV reacted to the Castilian victories by seeking an alliance with the Marinids, to whom he ceded Ronda and Algeciras again in 1327 and 1328, respectively, to use as a base. In 1332, he visited Fez to personally seek the intervention of the Marinid sultan, Abu al-Hasan ( r.  1331–1348 ), against Castile. Abu al-Hasan pledged his support and sent an army to Algeciras in 1333. It besieged Gibraltar and captured it in June. By August,

25560-714: The sugar mixture does not stick. The sugar paste is flattened into thin circles which are pressed into the molds, then left to dry for 24 hours. The two halves of the figure are then taken from the molds and joined together with more sugar paste, slightly thinned with water. This is left to dry again before decoration. Decorative elements can include cotton balls, sequins, sugar paste which is shaped and attached, plastic jewels and many other items. The different regions make their alfeñique figures according to local traditions and ingredients. Many families have been involved in making figurines for generations and some use molds that go back just as far. Apart from their popularity during Day of

25740-593: The surrender of Granada, presented his plans for an expedition across the Atlantic to the monarchs in the Hall of Ambassadors and on 17 April they signed the contract which set the terms for the expedition which landed in the Americas later that year. The new Christian rulers began to make additions and alterations to the palace complex. The governorship of the Alhambra was entrusted to the Tendilla family, who were given one of

25920-401: The time of Muhammad II . Muhammad III (r. 1302–1309) erected the Partal Palace , parts of which are still standing today, as well as the Alhambra's main ( congregational ) mosque (on the site of the current Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra). The Partal Palace is the earliest known palace to be built along the northern walls of the complex, with views onto the city below. It is also

26100-408: The towers of the Alcazaba, before later moving to a modest house on the site of the current Palace of Charles V . Later Nasrid rulers after Ibn al-Ahmar continuously modified the site. Along with the fragile materials themselves, which needed regular repairs, this makes the exact chronology of its development difficult to determine. The oldest major palace for which some remains have been preserved

26280-576: The trees are bare. The design and decoration of the Nasrid palaces are a continuation of Moorish (western Islamic) architecture from earlier centuries but developed their own characteristics. The combination of carefully-proportioned courtyards, water features, gardens, arches on slender columns, and intricately-sculpted stucco and tile decoration gives Nasrid architecture qualities that are described as ethereal and intimate. Walls were built mostly in rammed earth , lime concrete , or brick and then covered with plaster , while wood (mostly pine )

26460-468: The use of the Arabic language. Philip believed that the most effective way to solve the problem of the Moriscos lay in confiscating their properties and lands and completely erasing their identity, thus ending their existence as a distinct community. He issued a decree in the year 1567 forbidding them to wear their traditional embroidered clothes, mandating the use of Christian hats and pants, and further prohibited their language, customs and celebrations. When

26640-493: The war effort. Meanwhile, civil war erupted in Granada as a result of succession struggles in the Nasrid ruling house, which undermined any focused resistance to the Spanish advance. In July 1482, Muhammad XII , known as Boabdil to the Christians, led a successful coup against his father, Abu'l Hasan . Abu'l Hasan, a capable military leader, was forced to flee to Malaga and the emirate was divided between him and his son. Boabdil

26820-458: The west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Salmerón Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when

27000-538: The winter. Courtyards were usually aligned in a north–south direction which allows the main halls to receive direct sunlight at midday during the winter, while during the summer the higher midday sun is blocked by the position and depth of the porticos fronting these halls. Little is known about the architects and craftsmen who built the Alhambra, but more is known about the Dīwān al-Ins͟hā' , or chancery . This institution seems to have played an increasingly important role in

27180-401: The words "blessing" ( بركة baraka ) and "felicity" ( يمن yumn ), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace. Like the rest of the original stucco decoration, many inscriptions were originally painted and enhanced with colours. Studies indicate that the letters were often painted in gold or silver, or in white with black outlines, which would have made them stand out on

27360-487: The work, and before that year had passed, the construction of the ramparts was completed; water was brought in from the river and a channel carrying the water was built (...) During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of aqueducts and water channels that provided water for the complex and for other nearby countryside palaces such as

27540-408: Was Bab al-Gudur . It would have been the main entrance serving the medina , the area occupied by industries and the houses of workers inside the Alhambra. It was also through here that the Catholic Monarchs first entered the Alhambra on January 2, 1492. The Alcazaba or citadel is the oldest part of the Alhambra today. It was the centrepiece of the complicated system of fortifications that protected

27720-561: Was a major figure of literature, as was his successor, Ibn Zamrak (d. 1392). In the Alhambra, Muhammad V undertook major construction projects, including the Palace of the Lions . For the general population in the city, he sponsored the construction of a hospital ( maristan ), the Maristan of Granada , between 1365 and 1367. His reign was also a high point of cultural exchange with the Castilian court of Peter in Seville, who built his palace in

27900-498: Was appointed as chief architect from 1923 to 1936. The appointment of Torres Balbás, a trained archaeologist and art historian , marked a definitive shift to a more scientific and systematic approach to the Alhambra's conservation. He endorsed the principles of the 1931 Athens Charter for the Restoration of Monuments , which emphasized regular maintenance, respect for the work of the past, legal protection for heritage monuments, and

28080-464: Was built in 1348 during the reign of Yusuf I. The gate consists of a large horseshoe arch leading to a steep ramp passing through a bent passage . The passage turns 90 degrees to the left and then 90 degrees to the right, with an opening above where defenders could throw projectiles onto any attackers below. The image of a hand, whose five fingers symbolized the Five Pillars of Islam , is carved above

28260-503: Was exceptionally effective, even amidst the convoluted politics of the Iberian Peninsula in this era. The ongoing Castilian Civil War meant that Castile was not in a position to threaten Granada. Muhammad V initially supported Peter, his former ally, against his rival, Henry of Trastámara . He sent troops to help Peter, which provoked Henry's Aragonese allies into attacking Granadan ships at sea. Muhammad V, in turn, used these Christian attacks to solicit materials and funds from Musa II ,

28440-429: Was first raised above it as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492. A bell was added on the tower soon afterward and for centuries it was rung at regular times every day and on special occasions. In 1843 the tower became part of the city's coat of arms. Inside the enclosure of the inner fortress was a residential district that housed the elite guards of the Alhambra. It contained urban amenities like

28620-446: Was further threatened by the rebellion of the Banu Ashqilula in 1266. The latter were probably alienated by his decision to establish a line of succession through his sons Muhammad and Yusuf, which would distance them from the throne. They occupied Malaga and turned to Alfonso X for aid. Granada and Castile became embroiled in conflict and in each other's affairs, with Ibn al-Ahmar also supporting new Castilian rebels in 1272. The situation

28800-443: Was generally used for lower walls or for floors, while stucco was used for upper zones. Stucco was typically carved with vegetal arabesque motifs ( ataurique in Spanish, from Arabic: التوريق , romanized:  al-tawrīq , lit.   'foliage'), epigraphic motifs, geometric motifs, or sebka motifs. It could be further sculpted into three-dimensional muqarnas ( mocárabes in Spanish). Arabic inscriptions,

28980-420: Was his ally. In Granada, which was under the authority of Ibn Hud, the local Banu Khalid family led a propaganda campaign on behalf of the Nasrids. A revolt successfully stormed the city's citadel on 17 April 1238 (1 Ramadan 635 AH). Ibn al-Ahmar was then officially declared the new ruler with the help of Abu l-Hasan Ali al-Ru'ayni, a former secretary of Ibn Hud. On hearing of this, Ibn al-Ahmar quickly came to

29160-472: Was in the 14th century, particularly in the second reign of Muhammad V . After this period, internal dynastic conflicts escalated. After 1479, Granada faced a united Castile and Aragon under the Catholic Monarchs intent on conquering it. In 1491, after the decade-long Granada War , the emirate was forced to capitulate . Muhammad XII , the last Nasrid ruler, formally surrendered Granada in January 1492, marking

29340-517: Was interrupted by a palace coup in August 1359 that placed his half-brother, Isma'il II ( r.  1359–1360 ), on the throne. Muhammad V escaped to Guadix, where he had support from the local garrison, but was unable to rally further support from Almería or from Peter I , the Castilian king. He moved on and took refuge at the court of the Marinid ruler Abu Salim in Fez. Isma'il II was soon assassinated in June 1360 by one of his former co-conspirators,

29520-444: Was left uncompleted in the early 17th century. The site fell into disrepair over the following centuries, with its buildings occupied by squatters . The troops of Napoleon destroyed parts of it in 1812. After this, the Alhambra became an attaction for British, American, and other European Romantic travellers. The most influential of them was Washington Irving , whose Tales of the Alhambra (1832) brought international attention to

29700-462: Was located in the heart of the emirate, on the road between Granada and the emirate's second city, Malaga. This marked the beginning of a grinding 10-year war. The Christian force was made up of troops provided by Castilian nobles, towns, and the Santa Hermandad , as well as Swiss mercenaries. The Catholic Church also encouraged other Christian countries to offer their troops and their finances to

29880-446: Was not resolved by the time Ibn al-Ahmar died in 1273 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad II ( r.  1273–1302 ). During Muhammad II's reign a long-term pattern of diplomacy and geopolitical competition became evident, with the Nasrids, Castilians, and Marinids each playing with or against each other at various times. Each of these dynasties was also faced by other internal and external enemies. The Nasrids thus sought to forge

30060-435: Was one of the most difficult and prolonged engagements of the war. The strongly-fortified city put up a vigorous resistance, led by one of al-Zaghal's commanders, while Boabdil continued to stand back or actively help the Catholic Monarchs. Because the city resisted, its inhabitants were given little mercy and either killed or enslaved, which encouraged other Muslim towns to surrender more quickly after this. Al-Zaghal held out

30240-455: Was partly due also to the weakness of the Marinid state, which suffered from internal disarray in the second half of the 14th century. Spurred by his successes, Alfonso XI went on to begin a new siege of Gibraltar in 1349, but the following year he died from the Black Death that was sweeping through the region. After his death, the siege ended, leaving Gibraltar under Marinid control. Over

30420-405: Was previously a gully between the Alcazaba and the palaces. On the east side of the square is the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) which leads to the Palace of Charles V and to the former residential neighbourhoods (the medina ) of the Alhambra. The gate's construction is attributed to the reign of Muhammad III, although the decoration dates from different periods. Both the inner and outer façades of

30600-486: Was progressively expanded under his successors. Ibn al-Ahmar reigned with relative peace and stability until 1264, when the Mudéjar revolt took place in Castile, lasting until 1266. Mudéjar is a term used to refer to the Muslims who lived under the rule of the Christian kingdoms at this time, among whom different communities lived under different circumstances. The rebellion of 1264 was wide-ranging but it did not involve

30780-460: Was replaced with Modesto Cendoya, whose work was also criticized. Cendoya began many excavations in search of new artifacts but often left these works unfinished. He restored some important elements of the site, like the water supply system, but neglected others. Due to continued friction with Cendoya, the Special Commission was dissolved in 1913 and replaced with the council ( Patronato ) of

30960-592: Was seen as too harsh. Cordoba accepted him in 1232 for a few months and Seville accepted him for only a month in 1234. He was temporarily forced to acknowledge the authority of Ibn Hud again in 1234, in return for the latter's recognition of his authority over Arjona and Jaén. Towards 1236, the Castilian offensive intensified and the strategic situation became increasingly precarious for al-Andalus. On multiple occasions, Ibn al-Ahmar responded by aligning himself with Ferdinand III, even against other Muslim rulers. When Ferdinand conquered Cordoba in 1236 , Ibn al-Ahmar

31140-437: Was shaken by more internal turmoil, due in particular to the intrigues of the Ghazi s, led by Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula and his family. In 1327–28, they assassinated the vizier , Ibn Mahruq, and took effective control of the young emir. Meanwhile, Alfonso XI, now grown up, was eager to establish himself as a crusader . Aided by volunteers from Northern Europe , he led his army on multiple offensives against Granada, culminating in

31320-527: Was subsequently captured by the Castilians in 1483 and was only released after making major concessions that undermined his credibility in Granada. He agreed to resettle in Guadix while his father resumed control of Granada. Abu'l Hasan died in 1485, shortly after abdicating to his brother, Muhammad ibn Sa'd (Muhammad XIII) , known as al-Zaghal. After this, the Spanish campaigns continued unabated and made slow but steady progress, while internal strife continued among

31500-405: Was succeeded by his son, Muhammad III ( r.  1302–1309 ), who largely continued the same policies. Eventually, when Ferdinand IV solidified his control over his kingdom in 1306, Muhammad III changed diplomatic direction by making peace with him and resuming tribute payments to Castile. At the Alhambra, Muhammad III erected the Partal Palace , which is the oldest palace still standing within

31680-644: Was tactically advantageous. Aside from Ibn Hud in 1234, on subsequent occasions he also declared his allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad (before 1244), to the Almohad caliph Abd al-Wahid II al-Rashid (also before 1244), and to the Hafsids in Tunis (in 1242 and 1264). Arabic sources do not mention his vassalage to Castile. In the long-term, the Treaty of Jaén still formed a basis for Nasrid relations with Castile, but

31860-519: Was the chief architectural curator from 1936 to 1970. In 1940, a new Council of the Alhambra was created to oversee the site, which has remained in charge ever since. In 1984 the central government in Madrid transferred responsibility for the site to the Regional Government of Andalusia and in 1986 new statutes and documents were developed to regulate the planning and protection of the site. In 1984

32040-426: Was the core of a large palace complex begun by Isma'il I in the early 13th century and subsequently modified and refurbished by Yusuf I and Muhammad V over the course of the same century. This new palace complex served as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known in Arabic as the Qaṣr al-Sultan or Dār al-Mulk . The Comares Palace was accessed from the west through the Mexuar. An internal façade, known as

32220-442: Was under a Marinid siege at the time, and proceeded to occupy Asilah , Larache , and Ksar es-Seghir along the Moroccan coast. When the Marinid sultan Abu Ya'qub died in 1307, Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula declared himself sultan in his stead, but his bid for the throne failed as Abu Thabit , Abu Ya'qub's grandson, lifted the siege of Tlemcen and returned to retake Asilah and Ksar es-Seghir. Uthman took refuge in Granada and entered into

32400-414: Was used for roofs, ceilings, doors, and window shutters. Buildings were designed to be seen from within, with their decoration focused on the inside. The basic unit of Nasrid palace architecture was a rectangular courtyard with a pool, fountain, or water channel at its centre. Courtyards were flanked on two or four sides by halls, often preceded by arcaded porticoes. Many of these structures featured

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